This article is part (the 4th article) of the themed issue (a monograph) “Aberrant cytogenetic and reproductive patterns in the evolution of Paraneoptera”. The purpose of this article is to consider chromosome structure and evolution, chromosome numbers and sex chromosome systems, which all together constitute the chromosomal basis of reproduction and are essential for reproductive success. We are based on our own observations and literature data available for all major lineages of Paraneoptera including Zoraptera (angel insects), Copeognatha (=Psocoptera; bark lice), Parasita (=Phthiraptera s. str; true lice), Thysanoptera (thrips), Homoptera (scale insects, aphids, jumping plant-lice, whiteflies, and true hoppers), Heteroptera (true bugs), and Coleorrhyncha (moss bugs). Terminology, nomenclature, classification, and the study methods are given in the first paper of the issue (Gavrilov-Zimin et al. 2021).

中文翻译：

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副翅目（昆虫纲）染色体数目和性染色体系统的比较分析

本文是主题期（专着）“副翅目进化中的异常细胞遗传和繁殖模式”的一部分（第4篇）。本文的目的是考虑染色体结构和进化、染色体数量和性染色体系统，它们共同构成了繁殖的染色体基础，对繁殖成功至关重要。我们基于我们自己对副翅目所有主要谱系的观察和文献数据，包括 Zoraptera（天使昆虫）、Copeognatha（=Psooptera；树皮虱）、Parasita（=Phthiraptera s. str；真虱）、缨翅目（蓟马）、同翅目（介壳虫、蚜虫、跳植物虱子、粉虱和真漏斗）、异翅目（真虫）和 Coleorrhyncha（苔藓虫）。术语、命名法、分类、