Abstract Empirical researchers and criminal justice practitioners have generally set aside history in exchange for behavioral models and methodologies that focus primarily on crime itself as the most measurable and verifiable driver of American punitiveness. There are innumerable legal and political questions that have arisen out of these approaches. Everything from the social construction of illegality to the politicization of punishment to the stigmatization of physical identities and social statuses have long called into question the legal structures that underpin what counts as crime and how punishment is distributed. And yet, until quite recently, the question of what history has to offer has mostly been left to historians, historically minded social scientists, critical race and ethnic studies scholars, community and prison-based activists, investigative journalists, and rights advocates. What is at stake is precisely the foundational lawlessness of the law itself. At all times, a White outlaw culture that rewarded brute force and strength of arms against racialized others unsettles basic assumptions about how we are to understand criminalization and punitiveness over time: that is, who has counted as a criminal and to what end has the state used violence or punishment?

中文翻译：

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法律本身的根本无法无天：种族刑事化与美国惩罚的惩罚根源

摘要 实证研究人员和刑事司法从业人员通常将历史放在一边，以换取行为模型和方法，这些行为模型和方法主要关注犯罪本身，将其作为美国惩罚性最可衡量和可验证的驱动因素。这些方法引发了无数的法律和政治问题。从非法行为的社会建构到惩罚的政治化，再到对身体身份和社会地位的污名化，长期以来，人们对支撑什么是犯罪以及惩罚如何分配的法律结构提出了质疑。然而，直到最近，历史提供什么的问题大多留给历史学家、具有历史思想的社会科学家、批判性的种族和民族研究学者，社区和监狱活动家、调查记者和权利倡导者。危在旦夕的恰恰是法律本身的根本无法无天。在任何时候，一种奖励蛮力和武力对抗种族化的其他人的白人亡命之徒文化都动摇了关于我们如何随着时间的推移理解刑事定罪和惩罚性的基本假设：也就是说，谁被视为罪犯以及国家的目的是什么使用暴力或惩罚？