ABSTRACT

The nineteenth century was one in which millions of people acquired certificates and other credentials attesting that they knew what they claimed to know. These credentials resulted from mass examinations: systems of infrastructure that aspired to procedural objectivity. Among the key feature of these exams were the new numerical marking systems used to compare and commensurate different answers on these exams, because these numbers could generate averages and other formal abstractions of knowledge. While the resulting tests could be restrictive for the individual, they could be positive and even creative. Exam successes and credentials helped people work collectively in groups, giving each group member the confidence that other members knew what they claimed to know.

摘要

在十九世纪，数百万人获得了证书和其他凭证，证明他们知道他们声称知道的事情。这些证书来自大规模考试：追求程序客观性的基础设施系统。这些考试的关键特征之一是新的数字评分系统，用于比较和衡量这些考试的不同答案，因为这些数字可以生成平均值和其他形式的知识抽象。虽然由此产生的测试可能对个人有限制，但它们可能是积极的，甚至是创造性的。考试的成功和证书帮助人们在小组中集体工作，让每个小组成员相信其他成员知道他们声称知道的事情。