In the United States in the early twentieth century, state and local laws discriminating on the basis of alienage proliferated. Progressive reformers, nativist groups, state legislatures, and city councils sought new methods for restricting noncitizen access to the workplace and the marketplace. As this article demonstrates, the primary vehicle they utilized was state and local licensing laws. Licensing proved to be a powerful tool of exclusion; by 1930, citizenship-based licensing restrictions were present in every state and most major cities. Noncitizens challenged some of these laws, pushing for greater protection of their constitutional rights. The resulting court contests over exclusionary licensing laws led to the creation of a new branch of legal doctrine, one that redefined the relationship between noncitizens and state power. This article highlights the significant and underappreciated role played by state and local laws in shaping the immigrant experience in the Progressive Era. It furthers our understanding of the licensing power and illuminates a pivotal moment in the development of immigrant rights. Today, noncitizens are still excluded from a range of economic activities due to licensing restrictions. This article explores the roots and the spread of this little understood – and still consequential – technique of exclusion.

中文翻译：

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内部排斥：非公民和歧视性许可法的兴起

在二十世纪初期的美国，基于外国人身份的歧视的州和地方法律激增。进步改革者、本土主义团体、州立法机构和市议会寻求新方法来限制非公民进入工作场所和市场。正如本文所示，他们使用的主要工具是州和地方许可法。事实证明，许可是一种强有力的排除工具；到 1930 年，每个州和大多数主要城市都存在基于公民身份的许可限制。非公民对其中一些法律提出质疑，要求更好地保护他们的宪法权利。由此产生的法院对排他性许可法的争论导致了一个新的法律学说的诞生，它重新定义了非公民与国家权力之间的关系。本文强调了州和地方法律在塑造进步时代移民经历方面所发挥的重要但未被充分认识的作用。它加深了我们对许可权的理解，并阐明了移民权利发展的关键时刻。如今，由于许可证限制，非公民仍然被排除在一系列经济活动之外。本文探讨了这种鲜为人知但仍然重要的排除技术的根源和传播。