Objective:Code-switching is when bilingual individuals alternate between two languages in the same conversation. Some studies find that code-switching frequency is associated with executive functioning, while others do not. Individual attitudes towards bilingual language use and code-switching may explain the inconsistency in the literature. For instance, greater positive attitudes towards code-switching may be associated with more likelihood to engage in that practice and thus strengthen the cognitive benefit in executive function. Additionally, code-switching between English and Spanish has been stigmatized in the U.S., therefore it is unclear what sociocultural factors may predict positive attitudes. In this study, we assessed Latinx bilinguals’ attitudes on code-switching and investigated their relationship with code-switching frequency, sociodemographic and linguistic factors, and executive functioning.Participants and Methods:Participants were 525 community-dwelling English-Spanish bilingual Latinx adults from the Offspring study (Mage= 55.38 (10.42); Meducation= 12.62 (3.34); 71% women; 41% tested in English, 75% immigrant). A language history questionnaire assessed for bilingualism and code-switching frequency. Participants completed 7 questions on code-switching attitudes on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from Strongly Disagree to Strongly Agree (e.g., “switching between languages in a conversation is an important part of my identity”), that were summed for a total score with higher scores indicating more positive attitudes. Executive functioning was assessed with the NIH Toolbox Cognition battery, verbal fluencies, and the digit span test. Sociodemographic and linguistic factors included age, sex, education, immigrant status, parental years of education, English and Spanish proficiency (average score on self-reported ratings on speaking, reading, writing, and understanding), and testing language. General linear models evaluated the association of code-switching attitudes on executive function, after adjusting for relevant covariates.Results:Positive code-switching attitudes were correlated with greater code-switching, r(499)=.33, p<.001. Younger age r(499)=-.11, being born in the US t(493)=-2.05, greater English proficiency r(497)=.15, and English dominance t(499)=2.22, were associated with more positive code-switching attitudes (all p’s <.05). Sex, education, parental years of education, and Spanish proficiency were not associated with code-switching attitudes. Overall models of attitudes with executive function indicated that positive code-switching attitudes were associated with worse visual working memory (b = -0.08, t(169) = -2.75, 95% CI [0.14, -0.02]) after adjusting for age, sex, education, immigration status, parental years of education and testing language. Code-switching attitudes were not significantly associated with other executive function measures.Conclusions:Among a community-based sample of bilingual middle-aged Latinx adults, positive attitudes towards code-switching were associated with greater likelihood of code-switching in conversations, higher English proficiency, being US born, younger age, and English language dominance but negatively associated with visual working memory. These findings indicate that code-switching attitudes are influenced by sociodemographic and linguistic factors. Additionally, the negative association between code-switching attitudes and visual working memory provides support for previous studies showing code-switching as a disadvantage to cognition. Results of this study suggest that detailed characterization of sociocultural factors and aspects of bilingualism can provide further clarity in determining if there is a potential bilingual cognitive advantage. Future research should examine the relationship of code-switching with other aspects of bilingualism (e.g., age of acquisition).

中文翻译：

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6 拉丁双语者的语码转换、语言态度和执行功能

目的：语码转换是指双语个体在同一对话中在两种语言之间交替的情况。一些研究发现语码转换频率与执行功能相关，而另一些则不然。个人对双语使用和语码转换的态度可以解释文献中的不一致之处。例如，对语码转换更积极的态度可能与参与这种实践的可能性更大有关，从而增强执行功能的认知益处。此外，英语和西班牙语之间的语码转换在美国受到了侮辱，因此尚不清楚哪些社会文化因素可以预测积极态度。在这项研究中，我们评估了拉丁裔双语者对语码转换的态度，并调查了他们与语码转换频率、社会人口和语言因素以及执行功能的关系。 参与者和方法：参与者是来自 525 名居住在社区的英语-西班牙语双语拉丁裔成年人。后代研究（法师= 55.38 (10.42)；教育= 12.62 (3.34)；71% 为女性；41% 接受英语测试，75% 为移民）。语言历史调查问卷评估双语和语码转换频率。参与者按照 7 点李克特量表完成了 7 个关于语码转换态度的问题，范围从强烈不同意到强烈同意（例如，“在对话中切换语言是我身份的重要组成部分”），将这些问题相加得出总分分数越高表明态度越积极。执行功能通过美国国立卫生研究院工具箱认知电池、言语流畅性和数字广度测试进行评估。社会人口和语言因素包括年龄、性别、教育、移民身份、父母受教育年限、英语和西班牙语水平（自我报告的口语、阅读、写作和理解评分的平均分）以及语言测试。一般线性模型在调整相关协变量后评估了语码转换态度与执行功能的关联。结果：积极的语码转换态度与更大的语码转换相关，r(499)=.33，p<.001。较小的年龄 r(499)=-.11、出生在美国 t(493)=-2.05、较高的英语水平 r(​​497)=.15 和英语优势 t(499)=2.22 与更积极的相关语码转换态度（所有 p <.05）。性别、教育程度、父母受教育年限和西班牙语熟练程度与语码转换态度无关。态度与执行功能的总体模型表明，在调整年龄后，积极的语码转换态度与较差的视觉工作记忆相关（b = -0.08，t(169) = -2.75，95% CI [0.14，-0.02]），性别、教育程度、移民身份、父母受教育年限和测试语言。语码转换态度与其他执行功能测量没有显着相关性。结论：在基于社区的双语中年拉丁裔成年人样本中，对语码转换的积极态度与对话中语码转换的可能性更大、英语水平较高、出生在美国、年龄较小和英语占主导地位相关，但与此呈负相关具有视觉工作记忆。这些发现表明语码转换态度受到社会人口和语言因素的影响。此外，语码转换态度与视觉工作记忆之间的负相关性为之前的研究提供了支持，即语码转换不利于认知。这项研究的结果表明，对社会文化因素和双语的各个方面的详细描述可以进一步明确确定是否存在潜在的双语认知优势。未来的研究应该考察语码转换与双语其他方面（例如习得年龄）的关系。