Globally, Mastitis is a disease commonly affecting dairy cattle which leads to the use of antimicrobials. The majority of mastitis etiological agents are bacterial pathogens and Staphylococcus aureus is the predominant causative agent. Antimicrobial treatment is administered mainly via intramammary and intramuscular routes. Due to increasing antimicrobial resistance (AMR) often associated with antimicrobial misuse, the treatment of mastitis is becoming challenging with less alternative treatment options. Besides, biofilms formation and ability of mastitis-causing bacteria to enter and adhere within the cells of the mammary epithelium complicate the treatment of bovine mastitis. In this review article, we address the challenges in treating mastitis through conventional antibiotic treatment because of the rising AMR, biofilms formation, and the intracellular survival of bacteria. This review article describes different alternative treatments including phytochemical compounds, antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), phage therapy, and Graphene Nanomaterial-Based Therapy that can potentially be further developed to complement existing antimicrobial therapy and overcome the growing threat of AMR in etiologies of mastitis.

中文翻译：

---

面对引起牛乳腺炎的金黄色葡萄球菌抗菌管理的复杂性：创新范例

在全球范围内，乳腺炎是一种常见影响奶牛的疾病，因此需要使用抗菌药物。大多数乳腺炎病原体是细菌病原体，金黄色葡萄球菌是主要病原体。抗菌治疗主要通过乳房内和肌肉内途径进行。由于抗菌药物耐药性 (AMR) 的增加通常与抗菌药物的滥用有关，因此替代治疗方案越来越少，乳腺炎的治疗变得越来越具有挑战性。此外，生物膜的形成以及引起乳腺炎的细菌进入并粘附在乳腺上皮细胞内的能力使牛乳腺炎的治疗变得复杂。在这篇综述文章中，我们解决了由于 AMR 上升、生物膜形成和细菌细胞内存活而通过传统抗生素治疗治疗乳腺炎的挑战。这篇综述文章描述了不同的替代疗法，包括植物化学化合物、抗菌肽 (AMP)、噬菌体疗法和基于石墨烯纳米材料的疗法，这些疗法有可能进一步开发以补充现有的抗菌疗法，并克服乳腺炎病因中日益增长的 AMR 威胁。