Living with a diverse array of predators provides a significant challenge for prey to learn and retain information about each predator they encounter. Consequently, some prey respond to novel predators because they have previous experience with a perceptually similar predator species, a phenomenon known as generalization of predator recognition. However, it remains unknown whether prey can generalize learned responses across ontogenetic stages of predators. Using wood frog (Lithobates sylvaticus) tadpole prey we conducted two experiments to explore the extent of predator generalization of different life stages of two different predators: (1) predacious diving beetles (Dytiscus sp.) and (2) tiger salamanders (Ambystoma mavortium). In both experiments, we used chemical alarm cues (i.e., injured conspecific cues) to condition tadpoles to recognize the odor of either the larval or adult stage of the predator as risky. One day later, we tested tadpoles with either the larval or adult predator odor to determine whether they generalized their learned responses to the other life stage of the predator. Tadpoles generalized between larval and adult beetle odors but failed to generalize between larval and adult salamander odors. These results suggest that the odor of some predator species changes during metamorphosis to an extent that reduces their recognisability by prey. This ‘predator identity reset’ increases the number of threats to which prey need to attend.

中文翻译：

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捕食者变态及其对猎物风险评估的影响

与各种各样的捕食者一起生活对猎物来说是一个巨大的挑战，要了解和保留他们遇到的每个捕食者的信息。因此，一些猎物会对新的捕食者做出反应，因为它们以前有过与感知上相似的捕食者物种的经验，这种现象被称为捕食者识别的泛化。然而，尚不清楚猎物是否可以概括捕食者个体发育阶段的习得反应。我们以木蛙 (Lithobates sylvaticus) 蝌蚪为猎物，进行了两项实验，以探讨两种不同捕食者不同生命阶段的捕食者泛化程度：(1) 捕食性潜水甲虫 (Dytiscus sp.) 和 (2) 虎蝾螈 (Ambystoma mavortium) 。在这两个实验中，我们使用化学警报信号（即受伤的同种信号）来调节蝌蚪，使其识别捕食者幼虫或成虫阶段的气味是否有风险。一天后，我们用幼虫或成年捕食者的气味测试蝌蚪，以确定它们是否将学到的反应推广到捕食者的另一个生命阶段。蝌蚪能概括幼虫和成虫甲虫的气味，但不能概括幼虫和成虫蝾螈的气味。这些结果表明，一些捕食者物种的气味在变态过程中发生变化，从而降低了猎物对它们的识别度。这种“捕食者身份重置”增加了猎物需要应对的威胁数量。