We determined the distribution, fate, and health hazards of dimethenamid-P, metazachlor, and pyroxasulfone, the effective pre-emergence herbicides widely used both in urban and agricultural settings globally. The rate-determining phase of sorption kinetics of these herbicides in five soils followed a pseudo-second-order model. Freundlich isotherm model indicated that the herbicides primarily partition into heterogeneous surface sites on clay minerals and organic matter (OM) and diffuse into soil micropores. Principal component analysis revealed that soil OM (R², 0.47), sand (R², 0.56), and Al oxides (R², 0.33) positively correlated with the herbicide distribution coefficient (K_d), whereas clay (R², ‒ 0.43), silt (R², ‒ 0.51), Fe oxides (R², ‒ 0.02), alkaline pH (R², ‒ 0.57), and EC (R², ‒ 0.03) showed a negative correlation with the K_d values. Decomposed OM rich in C=O and C–H functional groups enhanced herbicide sorption, while undecomposed/partially-decomposed OM facilitated desorption process. Also, the absence of hysteresis (H, 0.27‒0.88) indicated the enhanced propensity of herbicide desorption in soils. Leachability index (LIX, < 0.02–0.64) and groundwater ubiquity score (GUS, 0.02‒3.59) for the soils suggested low to moderate leaching potential of the herbicides to waterbodies, indicating their impact on water quality, nontarget organisms, and food safety. Hazard quotient and hazard index data for human adults and adolescents suggested that exposure to soils contaminated with herbicides via dermal contact, ingestion, and inhalation poses minimal to no non-carcinogenic risks. These insights can assist farmers in judicious use of herbicides and help the concerned regulatory authorities in monitoring the safety of human and environmental health.

Graphical abstract

中文翻译：

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广泛用于城市和农田土壤的芽前除草剂：命运以及潜在的人类和环境健康风险

我们确定了噻吩草胺、吡草胺和吡咯磺隆的分布、归宿和健康危害，这些有效的芽前除草剂在全球城市和农业环境中广泛使用。这些除草剂在五种土壤中的吸附动力学的速率决定阶段遵循伪二阶模型。Freundlich等温线模型表明除草剂主要分配到粘土矿物和有机质（OM）的异质表面位点并扩散到土壤微孔中。主成分分析显示，土壤有机质（R ² , 0.47）、沙子（R ² , 0.56）和铝氧化物（R ² , 0.33）与除草剂分配系数（K _d）呈正相关，而粘土（R ² , − 0.43）、淤泥（R ² , – 0.51）、铁氧化物（R ² , – 0.02）、碱性pH（R ² , – 0.57）和EC（R ^{2 , – 0.03）与}K _d值呈负相关。富含C=O和C-H官能团的分解OM增强了除草剂吸附，而未分解/部分分解的OM则促进解吸过程。此外，不存在滞后现象（H，0.27-0.88）表明土壤中除草剂解吸的倾向增强。土壤的浸出性指数（LIX，< 0.02-0.64）和地下水普遍性评分（GUS，0.02-3.59）表明除草剂对水体的浸出潜力为低至中等，表明它们对水质、非目标生物和食品安全的影响。成人和青少年的危险商数和危险指数数据表明，通过皮肤接触、摄入和吸入而接触被除草剂污染的土壤，造成的非致癌风险极小甚至没有。这些见解可以帮助农民明智地使用除草剂，并帮助有关监管机构监测人类和环境健康的安全。

图形概要