The “publicness” of services provided by governments can be gauged with reference to the extent to which services are “non-rival in consumption.” Services that are more “rival in consumption” (e.g., education and medical care) are more likely to be “parceled out” between citizens. With greater personal experience, voters are more likely to be aware of private-good benefits and therefore are far more likely to perceive these services as part of a personal “endowment.” In economic downturns, they attach priority to sustaining expenditures on more “private” services and vote-maximizing governments respond by diverting expenditure from “more public” to “more private” services. Consequently, government expenditures are more cyclical the more they finance non-rival services. Predictions are tested with reference to government expenditures in 28 OECD countries between 1997 and 2019.

中文翻译：

---

政府支出为提供公共产品提供的资金越多，其周期性是否就越大？

政府提供的服务的“公共性”可以通过服务的“消费非竞争性”程度来衡量。更具“消费竞争性”的服务（例如教育和医疗保健）更有可能在公民之间“分配”。有了更多的个人经验，选民更有可能意识到私人利益，因此更有可能将这些服务视为个人“捐赠”的一部分。在经济低迷时期，他们优先考虑维持更多“私人”服务的支出，而追求选票最大化的政府则通过将支出从“更多公共”服务转向“更多私人”服务来应对。因此，政府支出为非竞争性服务提供的资金越多，其周期性就越大。预测是根据 28 个经合组织国家 1997 年至 2019 年的政府支出进行检验的。