Increasing heatwaves are making cities and their populations more vulnerable, parallel to urban sprawl and the aging population in Hungary. The increasing number of hot days is predicted to worsen urban climate anomalies at the local scale, which, in parallel with changing land use patterns, may contribute to a significant increase in vulnerability to heatwaves. Local stakeholders and decision-makers need to understand the critical role of spatiotemporal land use—land cover (LULC) patterns and urban climate aspects to address relevant challenges for urban development. The current literature does not contain a synthesis analysis of major Hungarian cities that includes urban climate and sustainability findings hand by hand; therefore, this study aims to analyze LULC patterns, urban hotspots and surface urban heat island effects. In addition, the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) was determined as an important indicator for assessing the health and density of green spaces in major Hungarian cities from 2006 to 2018 using remote sensing data. Our results show that each city experienced significant urban sprawl, while above-average NDVI areas decreased over time. The average increase in the share of built-up areas was 1.3% from 2006 to 2018, while the calculated average decline in agricultural areas was 2%, so the expansion of residential areas and artificial areas is not the only driving force of this shrinking trend in agricultural areas. Furthermore, we found that urban hotspots are generally concentrated in industrial areas and represent new spaces of heat islands on the outskirts of cities. Székesfehérvár has the most intense industrial heat islands, with the largest proportion of urban hotspots (approximately 3.5% of the total area) concentrated in industrial zones. Our study contributes to uncovering inter-urban processes of land use patterns and urban climate issues in major Hungarian cities, moreover revealing sustainability-related issues from a lock-in perspective.

中文翻译：

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匈牙利主要城市气候动态时空分析

不断增加的热浪使城市及其人口变得更加脆弱，同时匈牙利的城市扩张和人口老龄化也是如此。预计炎热天数的增加将加剧局部范围内的城市气候异常，这与土地利用模式的变化同时发生，可能导致热浪脆弱性显着增加。当地利益相关者和决策者需要了解时空土地利用-土地覆盖（LULC）模式和城市气候方面的关键作用，以应对城市发展的相关挑战。目前的文献不包含对匈牙利主要城市的综合分析，其中包括城市气候和可持续性研究结果；因此，本研究旨在分析土地利用和土地利用模式、城市热点和地表城市热岛效应。此外，利用遥感数据确定了归一化植被指数（NDVI）作为评估匈牙利主要城市2006年至2018年绿地健康和密度的重要指标。我们的结果表明，每个城市都经历了显着的城市扩张，而高于平均水平的 NDVI 面积随着时间的推移而减少。 2006年至2018年，建成区占比平均增长1.3%，而经计算，农业面积平均下降2%，因此住宅区和人工区的扩张并不是这一萎缩趋势的唯一驱动力在农业领域。此外，我们发现城市热点普遍集中在工业区，代表着城市郊区的热岛新空间。塞克希白堡拥有最强烈的工业热岛，最大比例的城市热点（约占总面积的3.5%）集中在工业区。我们的研究有助于揭示匈牙利主要城市的土地利用模式和城市气候问题的城市间过程，此外还从锁定的角度揭示了与可持续发展相关的问题。