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A collaborative autoethnographic journey of collective storying: Transitioning between the ‘I’, the ‘We’ and the ‘They’ Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2024-03-22 Suzette Dyer, Fiona Hurd, Amy Kenworthy, Peggy Hedges, Tony Wall, Shankar Shankaran, David Raymond Jones
The story we share here is about lessons learned during a three-year, collaborative autoethnographic journey beginning in January 2020. Our story is one of conducting a meaningful inquiry into our shared lived experience amid the changes brought about by COVID-19 lockdowns. Our insights speak to how we collaboratively reflected and researched across institutions, countries, disciplines, and career
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Book Review: Menopause Transitions and the Workplace: Theorizing Transitions, Responsibilities and Interventions Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2024-03-22 Belinda Steffan
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Employing memories of biopolitical racism for consciousness raising across time and space Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2024-03-22 Ghazal Mir Zulfiqar
This critical autoethnographic account describes a journey from marginalization, as a racialized Muslim minority woman in the age of American Islamophobia and biopolitical racism, to a position of dominance as my identity changed with my move from the United States to Pakistan. I reflect on the feelings of solidarity that welled up inside me with those being marginalized in my new political space and
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Against mastery: Epistemic decolonizing in the margins of the Business School Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2024-03-19 Chahrazad Abdallah
In this provocation, I argue that epistemic decolonizing is an opposition to the Master promulgator of knowledge, the Western/Eurocentric epistemic subject position. This epistemic refusal of mastery can only happen in the margins of the Business School, and as such, it is always an unfinished project whose incompleteness should be celebrated. To develop my argument, I proceed in three steps. First
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With or without you: Career capital development as experienced by MBA alumni Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2024-03-19 Elizabeth Houldsworth, Andrea Tresidder, Tatiana Rowson
This article focuses on understanding the qualitatively different experiences of career development reported by the MBA alumni of a UK business school. Although the potential of the MBA to support career capital development has been previously identified, a thorough investigation into how this is experienced has been lacking. The study contributes to career capital theory in the context of post-experience
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Manifestation of academic rackets in management research through early career sessions at academic conferences Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2024-03-18 P Matthijs Bal, Yvonne van Rossenberg, Mehmet A Orhan
This article investigated elite maintenance in the field of management and how early career researchers are taught to behave to become part of the elite. We develop insights into how the elite reproduces itself through socializing subsequent generations of scholars into the norms and hegemonic practices of the elite. Through analysis of sessions for early career researchers at a major academic management
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Getting into top-ranked management journals from business schools at the periphery: The role of doctoral education and co-authorship Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2024-02-17 Behlül Üsdiken, Ozan Duygulu, Betül Altunsu
Drawing upon recent extensions of the centre–periphery model, we examine research and publications by academics at the periphery within the present environment of increasing institutional pressures to publish internationally. Reviewing the emergence and the historical development of management as a discipline, we describe the fragmentation in approaches to research that has arisen in this field among
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One rule, three tips, five reasons: Gendered entrepreneurial learning and the construction of online advice Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2024-01-22 Katrina Pritchard, Helen C Williams, Maggie C Miller
Our article contributes to critical perspectives on entrepreneurial learning by explicating how advice functions as an entrepreneurial product disseminated online. While academics are often critical of online advice, they nevertheless acknowledge that it is thriving. Therefore, we combine critical perspectives on entrepreneurial learning and public pedagogy to examine advice, often presented as rules
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Structured shadowing as a pedagogy Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2024-01-22 Davide Nicolini, Maja Korica
In this article, we introduce and discuss the potential benefits of structured shadowing, a distinct pedagogy in which the action-proximity of traditional unstructured job shadowing is supplemented by carefully designed pre-, intra- and post-shadowing pedagogical support. We suggest that structured shadowing is a promising yet under-utilized and overlooked pedagogy to enrich management learning and
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Politicizing and humanizing management learning and education with Paulo Freire Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2024-01-16 Amon Barros, Alexandra Bristow, Alessia Contu, Sergio Wanderley, Ajnesh Prasad
Paulo Freire is widely acknowledged as one of the leading 20th-century philosophers of education. Freire’s ideas have been leveraged by scholars across the social sciences, including in the field of organization studies where it has come to inform extant understandings of management learning and education. While such engagements with Freire have enriched many germane discourses in our field, we have
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Unveiling systemic oppression in business education: Freire’s contribution to our quest for social change Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2024-01-06 Maria Fernanda Rios Cavalcanti, Andre Luis Silva
Management scholarship faces a challenge in maintaining relevance, as it struggles to influence and shape practices that address pressing societal problems such as social inequalities and environmental degradation. While critical management education has surfaced as a promising avenue for reshaping management practices, it has yet to realize its potential. This article aims to address this relevance
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In Praise of Shadows: Exploring the hidden (responsibility) curriculum Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2023-05-13 Tony Wall, Maribel Blasco, Stella M Nkomo, Marton Racz, Marcela Mandiola
We frame this special issue on the hidden responsibility curriculum through the lens of Jun’ichirō Tanizaki’s 1933 essay, In Praise of Shadows, which recognises the subtlety, modesty and dignity of...
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Moving from responsibility learning inaction to ‘responsibility learning-in-action’: A student-educator collective writing on the ‘unnoticed’ in the hidden curriculum at business schools Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2023-05-13 Uracha Chatrakul Na Ayudhya, Michelle Edmondson, America Harris, Fabien Littel
We are a student–educator writing collective that have come together outside the formal classroom to experiment with ‘writing differently’, imbued with a desire to enact collective resistance again...
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Lived rhythms as a ground for togetherness and learning in hybrid workspace Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2023-05-12 Hanne Vesala
Using Maurice Merleau-Ponty’s theory of the flesh as rhythm, this article examines how lived dynamics between embodiment and space construct distinct modes of togetherness and learning in working l...
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An attempt to become an-Other critical scholar: Bridging as ‘activist performativity’ Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2023-05-12 Ozan Nadir Alakavuklar
This essay invites my colleagues in business schools to do their research differently by working with and for community/grassroots organisations. Based on my fieldwork experience at a free food sto...
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Embedding entrepreneurship education in non-business courses: A systematic review and guidelines for practice Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2023-05-11 Emil Lucian Crișan, Ioana Natalia Beleiu, Irina-Iulia Salanță, Ovidiu Niculae Bordean, Raluca Bunduchi
The past decade has seen increased interest in entrepreneurship education outside business schools, driven both by changes in market demand and governmental policies. This has led to an expansion o...
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Do neutral hearts make the world go around? A eudaemonic turn in business curricula Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2023-04-27 Edwina Pio, Guillermo Merelo
What does it take for business schools to reconnect with new cohorts of students and their societal expectations? One of the myriad barriers that universities face when addressing such a conundrum ...
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Trojan horses: Creating a positive hidden (extra)curriculum through a Justice, Equality, Diversity and Inclusion (JEDI) initiative Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2023-04-18 Amir Keshtiban, Mark Gatto, Jamie L Callahan
In this paper, we describe a mechanism for subverting the institutional-level neo-liberal hidden curricula of responsibility learning in universities by using a positive hidden curriculum based on ...
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Homo responsabilis as an extension of the neoliberal hidden curriculum: The triple responsibilization of responsible management education Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2023-04-17 Martin Fougère, Nikodemus Solitander
In the responsible turn in business school education and management learning, the responsibility approach is proposed as a possible panacea against a hidden curriculum which leads to damaging busin...
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Flipping the normative: Developing and delivering a critical pedagogy for executive education in a UK business school Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2023-04-13 Sharon Mavin, Joanne James, Nicola Patterson, Amy Stabler, Sandra Corlett
This article explores tensions when flipping the normative by developing and facilitating a programme-long critical pedagogy for executive education in a UK business school. Through a small-scale q...
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The Principles for (Ir)Responsible Management Education: An exploration of the dynamics of paradox, the hidden curriculum, competencies and symbolization Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2023-04-13 Simon M Smith, Karen Cripps, Peter Stokes, Hugues Seraphin
This article discusses whether, as academics, we are behaving irresponsibly in the manner in which we deliver the much-vaunted Principles for Responsible Management Education. The Principles for Re...
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Organization encounters a new virus: A cautionary tale of othering and (not) learning Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2023-03-01 Sally Riad
The world’s dire experience with a new coronavirus has shown that the (re)organization embedded in managing a virus and knowledge on organization(s) and management are out of joint. This article en...
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Learning to manage as learning to fail: The lessons of running Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2023-02-11 Russell Warhurst, Kate Black
Management learning aims to ensure managerial success and while failure is acknowledged, learners are encouraged to adopt a growth mindset and to bounce back from failure. However, the complexity o...
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Scaling up and scaling down: Improvisational handling of critical work practices during the COVID-19 pandemic Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2022-12-08 Martina Berglund, Ulrika Harlin, Mattias Elg, Andreas Wallo
The aim of this article is to explore improvisational handling of critical work practices during the COVID-19 pandemic and interpret these practices from a learning perspective. Based on an intervi...
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Be(com)ing other-oriented: Mindfulness-trained leaders’ experiences of their enhanced social awareness Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2022-11-23 Laura Ilona Urrila, Liisa Mäkelä
The potential significance of mindfulness for social relations at work has been recognized in the recent management literature, yet a thorough investigation has been lacking into how mindfulness ma...
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Pandemic, power and paradox: Improvising as the New Normal during the COVID-19 crisis Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2022-11-18 Ace Volkmann Simpson, Alexia Panayiotou, Marco Berti, Miguel Pina e Cunha, Shireen Kanji, Stewart Clegg
The global COVID-19 pandemic made salient various paradoxical tensions, such as the trade-offs between individual freedom and collective safety, between short term and long-term consequences of ada...
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Academic work and imagination: Reflections of an armchair traveler Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2022-11-18 Janne Tienari
In this paper, I offer an autoethnography of academic work and imagination. I write as an “armchair traveler” who joins others in research endeavors that they have initiated. Imagination takes cent...
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Challenging the hidden curriculum: Building a lived process for responsibility in responsible management education Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2022-11-18 Paul Hibbert, April L Wright
This essay argues that conceptualisations of responsibility in the responsible management education literature are generally superficial or unstated. We propose that this leads to practical underst...
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I, strategist Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2022-11-11 Alex Wright
An autoethnography is offered of a head of an academic department and middle manager writing a strategic plan he did not believe was necessary or would have any beneficial effects on colleagues wit...
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Power, politics and improvisation: Learning during a prolonged crisis Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2022-09-16 Stefan Meisiek, Bonnie Rose Stanway
The COVID-19 pandemic has caught most organizations off guard. They have had to adapt their operations rapidly, and with the pandemic persisting, continuously improvise. While such an external jolt...
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Character-enabled improvisation and the new normal: A paradox perspective Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2022-09-15 Dusya Vera, Mary M Crossan
The COVID-19 pandemic has amplified and exacerbated organizational paradoxes felt by individuals largely because of the nostalgia individuals feel for the “old” normal while facing the need to let ...
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Teaching management in the context of Grand Challenges: A pragmatist approach Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2022-09-15 Chantale Mailhot, Marc D Lachapelle
This article builds on the pragmatist approach of Grand Challenges to derive pedagogical strategies for management education, especially for courses that aim to prepare students to face the unprece...
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Authorising managers in management development? Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2022-09-15 Morten Knudsen, Magnus Larsson, Mette Mogensen
This article explores the relationship between management and leadership development and leadership practice. Critical studies of management and leadership development programmes have mainly focuse...
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Disjunctions in the context of management learning: An exemplary publication of narrative fiction Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2022-09-15 Bruno Luiz Américo, Stewart Clegg
Management Learning is a centre of scholarship, and thoughtful scholars strive to achieve exemplary publications – those that make a difference to both theory and practice as well as being frequent...
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Beyond the entrepreneur: A study of entrepreneurial learning from a social practice perspective working with scientists in West Africa Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2022-09-15 Joana Pais Zozimo, Anthony N-Yelkabong, Nigel Lockett, Lola Dada, Sarah L Jack
This article contributes to extending the current conceptualisation of entrepreneurial learning by challenging the assumption that entrepreneurial learning is solely embodied in the entrepreneur. E...
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Creating a lean mind-set: Change of practice towards early treatment Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2022-09-10 Ole Andreas Haukåsen, Inge Hermanrud
This paper reports the findings of a qualitative study on lean implementation viewed as an organisational learning process. By using a scaffolding framework, we investigate the ways in which human ...
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The role of professional elites in shaping management practice: How the old mentalities condition the adoption of new management ideas Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2022-09-03 Hannele Seeck, Anu Kantola
This study explores how the adoption of management ideas is conditioned by wider macro-level mentalities that are not company based but that instead reflect professionally or nationally rooted ways...
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Sensuous intoxication: Learning from bodies in organisational ethnography Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2022-08-22 Will McConn-Palfreyman, Anita Mangan, Peter McInnes
An increasing number of management articles have focused on embodied ethnography in terms of either understanding other bodies at work or how our own bodies as researchers inform knowledge. In adva...
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Students of entrepreneurship: Sorting, risk behaviour and implications for entrepreneurship programmes Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2022-07-28 Giulio Zichella, Toke Reichstein
Despite the wide adoption of entrepreneurship programmes by higher education institutions, little is known about how such programmes help students cultivate rationality in decision making. This is surprising, since individuals are bounded rational and prone to systematic biases in high-risk business processes, including entrepreneurship. This article suggests that entrepreneurship programmes should
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Who’s afraid of the senses? Organization, management and the return of the sensorium Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2022-07-28 Timon Beyes, Boukje Cnossen, Karen Ashcraft, Nicolas Bencherki
Organization and management are the perpetual, and perpetually fraught and resisted, ordering of sense experience. However, banning the senses into the outside of thought, and of organizational analysis, was – and to a large degree still is – the default and mostly implicit and unquestioned mode of thinking and studying organization and management. Introducing the special issue on ‘The Senses in Management
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Phronetic improvisation: A virtue ethics perspective Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2022-07-28 Demetris Hadjimichael, Haridimos Tsoukas
Traditional approaches to organizational improvisation treat it as a merely functional response to environmental constrains and unforeseen disruptions, neglecting its moral dimension, especially the valued ends improvisers aim to achieve. We attempt to address this gap by drawing on virtue ethics. In particular, we explore how phronetic improvisation is accomplished by drawing on the diary of an emergency-room
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Unlearning organized numbness through poetic synesthesia: A study in scarlet Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2022-07-28 Mar Pérezts
I define “organized numbness” as the organized inability to perceive sensations, a learned desensitization operating in the way our (1) bodies, (2) language, and (3) knowledge are organized. I prop...
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“If a (queer) revolt is to come”: Toward a sensuous pedagogy for dis/orienting management learning Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2022-07-21 Chris Steyaert
This article embarks on a hopeful exploration of queer phenomenology in order to reorient management learning toward the senses, the body, and the spaces of learning and teaching we inhabit during education. Starting from Michel Serres’ long-standing provocation that “If a revolt is to come, it will have to come from the five senses,” I ask whether and how we might reissue his timely call amid today’s
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Longing as learning, learning as longing: Insights and improvisations in a year of disrupted studies Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2022-07-21 Jerzy Kociatkiewicz, Monika Kostera
Whether a harbinger of a new era or an anomaly, the year 2020 confronted students and teachers alike with the necessity of reassessing and reformulating teaching and learning possibilities and practicalities. In this very subjective text, we examine some of our own experiences of higher education under lockdown and physical distancing conditions. In an apparent paradox, the changed conditions simultaneously
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A tragic ethics for the Anthropocene: On the unmanageable and impossible in management learning Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2022-07-21 Isleide Arruda Fontenelle
This essay offers a reflection on which ethics can critically guide the field of management learning in the Anthropocene. Based on a negative ontology of humankind and nature, I understand the Anthropocene as being unmanageable and imposing an ethical dimension of the impossible on the field of management learning. Inspired by the Lacanian concept of tragic ethics, which is based on certain categories
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Making leadership as practice development visible: Learning from Activity Theory Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2022-07-13 Katie E Willocks
Across the globe, organisations are facing significant challenges and operating in increasingly volatile, uncertain, complex and ambiguous environments. In the context of such complexity, effective leadership is ever more important. Recently, a body of work known as ‘Leadership as practice’ and leadership as practice development has been developed as a useful way of thinking about leadership that is
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Secular discernment: A process of individual unlearning and collective relearning Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2022-07-07 Nicholas Burton, Mai Chi Vu, Melissa Hawkins
Through a process of action research with a non-religious organization, this article provides a foundation for the characteristics of a secular discernment process. Importantly, we argue that discernment can be conceptualized as a process of entwined individual unlearning and collective relearning. Our action research study contributes to both the discernment and the unlearning literatures by unpacking
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A sense of spacing: Toward a diffractive reading of organizational space Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2022-06-28 Ari Kuismin
This article explores how a diffractive methodology can enrich research on organizational space and the senses. Through the creation of interferences, a diffractive methodology directs attention to how differences in sensing are created in the ongoing production of space and what the effects of these are. By using examples from an ethnographic study of the Hub, a university-based entrepreneurship space
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Navigating hope and despair in sustainability education: A reflexive roadmap for being with eco-anxiety in the classroom Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2022-06-23 Peter Skilling, Fiona Hurd, Marjolein Lips-Wiersma, Peter McGhee
In this article, we reflect on our experiences of teaching sustainability in management education in an emergent context of increasing and pervasive eco-anxiety. Our collaborative autoethnographic enquiry stemmed from the tensions we experienced in our desire to present a realistic view of the future to students, while still maintaining their (and our) sense of hope and agency. While sustainability
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Organizational learning through character-based judgment Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2022-06-23 Mary M Crossan, Brenda Nguyen, Rachel E Sturm, Dusya Vera, Ana Ruiz Pardo, Cara C Maurer
We introduce character into organizational learning by building theory about how strength of individual character enhances organizational learning and how unbalanced or weak character undermine organizational learning. Bringing character into organizational learning theory helps to elucidate the type of judgment (i.e. character-based judgment anchored in all dimensions of character) that is missing
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Feeling your way as an occupational minority: The gendered sensilisation of women electronic music artists Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2022-06-16 Samantha Parsley
This article develops a nascent theory of ‘sensilisation’ – a process of learning to be skilled in experiencing and displaying sensory knowledge according to social convention. In particular, I present data from an autoethnography of learning to be a DJ and producer of electronic music (hereafter ‘electronic music artist’), and in-depth interviews with 36 women at various stages of their careers as
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The fallacies of non-agility: Approaching organizational agility through a dialectical practice perspective Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2022-06-08 Ryan Armstrong, Daniel Manitsky
Complexity, paradox, tension, and contradiction are increasingly seen as permeating all aspects of organizational life. Yet despite ongoing advancement, both our understanding of the nature of complexity and how to use this increased appreciation of it in practice are still developing. In this spirit, this article considers organizational agility and how to achieve it. Here, current discussions of
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The gradeless paradox: Emancipatory promises but ambivalent effects of gradeless learning in business and management education Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2022-06-08 Annemette Kjærgaard, Elisabeth Naima Mikkelsen, Julie Buhl-Wiggers
The negative impacts of grades on students’ approach to learning and well-being have renewed the interest in gradeless learning in higher education, with the current literature focusing on the positive outcomes for students, including the advancement of student learning, reduced stress, increased motivation, and enhanced performance. While the idea of freeing students from the weight of grades sounds
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Sailing through the storm: Improvising paradox navigation during a pandemic Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2022-06-03 Patrick Lê, Camille Pradies
Despite rich depictions of paradox navigation strategies, and the recognition that they are fraught with uncertainty, research reveals relatively little about how leaders navigate paradoxical tensions when improvising in the face of highly unpredictable and quickly evolving events. We conducted a narrative study of how French President Macron navigated the tension between the paradoxical poles of “saving
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Towards an aspirational future: Cultivating ontological empathy within the ethos of Management Learning Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2022-04-05 Ajnesh Prasad, Martyna Śliwa
As we write this editorial in January 2022, we look back on 2021 and we look ahead to another year of curating Management Learning together with a fantastic team of Associate Editors, a wonderful Editorial Assistant, a supportive publisher, and the community of International Editorial Board members, reviewers, and, of course, our readers. We have said ‘goodbye’ to 2021: another year replete with challenges
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Decolonizing journals in management and organizations? Epistemological colonial encounters and the double translation Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2022-03-18 Amon Barros, Rafael Alcadipani
Increasingly, academics worldwide need publishing in international journals. Various events and articles aim at teaching others how to write, and they spread ideas and skills to help newcomers. However, we tend to neglect the specificities of periphery-based academics, engaging with “international” journals. Drawing from our experience as academics from Brazil, we argue that publishing in top-academic
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Book review: The Routledge Companion to Organizational Diversity Research Methods Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2022-03-16 Ilaria Boncori
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Arts-based methods in business education: A reflection on a photo-elicitation project Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2022-03-13 Georgia Stavraki, Ioanna Anninou
This article addresses research calls to explore the theory and practice of arts-based methods in business and management education to better understand the learning processes and the ways of knowing that these methods generate. By focusing on photo-elicitation as a pedagogical tool, we problematize an insufficient focus of current discourses on its arts-based origins and revisit photo-elicitation
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Ideology, doxa and critical reflexive learning: The possibilities and limits of thinking that ‘diversity is good’ Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2022-03-01 Miguel Morillas, Laurence Romani
How can managers reach a critical position from which to develop more responsible management practices? The literature suggests that the answer lies in critical reflexive learning, explaining how reflexivity can detach individuals from the grip of harmful ideologies. We challenge this premise, according to which critical reflexive learning and ideology are counterposed, arguing instead that they need
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There’s nothing as practical as understanding the nature of theory: A phenomenographic study of management educators’ implicit theories of theory Manag. Learn. (IF 3.738) Pub Date : 2022-02-26 Michael Eichler, Jon Billsberry
Although teaching in Business Schools takes a theory-driven perspective, there are multiple different interpretations of what this means. We make a contribution by examining how management educators define ‘theory’ and explore how differing definitions lead to variations in the way that teaching is conceptualised and designed. We adopt phenomenographic methods to reveal a five-level hierarchy of theory