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Decarceration and prison release effects on crime: a case study of proposition 47 Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2024-03-27 Jennifer LaPrade, Jordan R. Riddell, Euel Elliott
Progressive prosecutors have called for decarceration for many lower-level crimes, but critics claim such measures may cause crime to increase. To date, few studies have investigated the effects of...
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The association between number of siblings and delinquent behaviour Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2024-03-23 Eva-Lotta Nilsson, Zoran Vasiljevic, Robert Svensson
This study examines the association between number of siblings and delinquency, adjusting for family relations and demographic variables. Data is based on a nationally representative school survey ...
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Broadening our understanding of cybercrime and its evolution Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2024-02-29 Benoît Dupont, Francis Fortin, Rutger Leukfeldt
Published in Journal of Crime and Justice (Ahead of Print, 2024)
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Behind the gray walls: an examination of prison visitation among older inmates Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2024-02-21 Jessica Rich, Julie N. Brancale
Research on prison visitation has primarily focused on the visitation experiences among the inmate population as a homogenous group, overlooking the complex experiences and needs of older inmates. ...
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On the (zoom) record: the role of videoconferencing in detention hearing proceedings Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2024-02-23 Luis C. Torres, Elizabeth M. Lyne, Ashley M. Appleby
Following the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, courts nationwide abruptly halted operations. Seemingly overnight, courts adopted videoconferencing technology and resumed critical operations virtuall...
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Marginal no more: the equalization of campus and municipal police Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2024-02-13 Ryan Patten, Matthew O Thomas, Andrea Allen, Stephen Averill Sherman, Season Hoard, Lucas Alward
Research of campus police has consistently demonstrated that they are viewed as less than or ‘not real cops,’ even though campus police possess full law enforcement powers. Using the liminality the...
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Employment and Recidivism on Federal Probation: A Comparison between Whites and Native Americans under Supervision Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2024-02-12 James Tuttle, Mark H. Heirigs, Jackson M. Bunch
Despite extensive research on the impact of employment on offending and recidivism, little is known about how it influences the recidivism of Native Americans. In this study, we compare the likelih...
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Black and blue: deconstructing Defund the Police Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2024-02-06 Kaitlyn Hunter, Sulaimon Giwa, Ryan Broll
The demand to address police racism by ‘defunding the police’ echoed on- and offline in the summer of 2020 following the police murder of George Floyd, but it has not always been clear what defundi...
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The additive and cumulative effects of dual victimization on crime from a general strain theory perspective Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2024-02-05 Yeoju Park, Christi Metcalfe
This study tested hypotheses from general strain theory regarding the additive and cumulative effects of direct and vicarious victimization on criminal coping among serious adolescent offenders tra...
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Juvenile willingness to report: correlates and implications for procedural justice Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2024-02-05 Y. Gail Hurst, Omeed S. Ilchi, James Frank, Mengyan Dai
One of the positive consequences of procedurally just behavior by the police during interactions with citizens is alleged to be citizen willingness to cooperate with the police. While there have be...
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Complex answers to simple questions: mediating the parental knowledge-delinquency relationship with unsupervised routine activities and moral neutralization Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2024-01-31 Glenn D. Walters
Drawing from social-cognitive-development theory, I compared a two-stage mediation model where unsupervised routine activities and moral neutralization beliefs mediated the relationship between per...
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Judicial decisions in money laundering cases: the Influence of monetary compensation and sentencing guidelines in South Korea Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2024-01-22 Sunmin Hong, Diana Rodriguez
This study investigates the impact of sentencing guideline factors on judges’ decisions regarding in/out and the length of imprisonment for individuals convicted of money laundering-related offense...
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Time-to-first shooting: a complementary measure to time-to-crime Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2024-01-03 Alaina De Biasi
This study identifies the challenges and benefits of leveraging data systems managed by the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives toward calculating time-to-first shooting (TTFS), a ...
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Exploring the relationship between immigration and exposure to criminal victimization among El Paso Latinas/os Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2024-01-03 Chris Guerra, Carolina Licerio, Amanda Goodson
Scholarship surrounding immigration and victimization has grown substantially in recent years. Prior research suggests that immigrant statuses generally protect against victimization, particularly ...
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Police use-of-force self-efficacy: an antidote to the Ferguson effect? Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2023-12-27 Christopher J. Marier, Daniel B. Baker
Research has consistently shown that officers’ perceptions of deteriorated relationships with the public are associated with physical and emotional disengagement with their work. Anecdotal evidence...
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“The job changes you”: a reflexive thematic analysis of Australian correctional officer mental health Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2023-11-18 Olivia Miller, Dagmar Bruenig, Jane Shakespeare-Finch
Correctional officers (COs) work under stressful conditions and experience high rates of potentially psychologically traumatic critical incidents, and yet understanding of their mental health is li...
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Does type of counsel matter? A Comparison of outcomes in cases involving retained- and assigned counsel Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2023-10-30 Ronald Burns, Brie Diamond, Kendra N. Bowen
Existing research yields inconsistent results with regard to differences among type of counsel in criminal cases. Studies in the area generally compare the effectiveness of indigent versus retained...
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An empirical analysis of the (Un)readability of inmate handbooks Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2023-10-30 Jessie L. Krienert, Jeffrey A. Walsh, Malia A. Kohls
All 50 state Departments of Corrections (DOC) provide some form of handbook to inmates upon their incarceration. Handbooks specify, in part, the rules, regulations, responsibilities, and consequenc...
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Opioid misuse and legislative responses in U.S. states: politics and lawmaking to address a public health crisis Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2023-10-30 Ellen A. Donnelly, Emily Tavares-Sanches
U.S. state legislators have increasingly adopted new laws in response to rising rates of fatal and non-fatal opioid overdoses. Legislative interventions vary in number and scope across states, prom...
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The impact of professional orientations on officers’ supervision behaviors in juvenile and adult community corrections: a multi-agency analysis Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2023-10-11 Riane M. Bolin, Brandon K. Applegate
Early scholarship on community corrections officers suggested that officers’ perceptions of their professional role influences how they carry out supervision. While some research has supported this...
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Examining risk and risk perception on LSD and MDMA in online marketplaces Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2023-10-09 Maria Bada, Yi Ting Chua
The anonymity provided in underground forums has led to the growth of illicit substance drug markets. Online markets seem to be safer for drug transactions, with reduced risks of being arrested. Ho...
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Whose fault? Defendant perceptions of their own blameworthiness and guilty plea decisions Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2023-09-30 Jacqueline G. Lee, Chae M. Jaynes, Silas Patterson
With the present paper, we seek to understand how defendants form of perceptions blameworthiness and to assess how these perceptions affect willingness to accept a plea offer. With an online vignet...
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Revisiting labeling theory: empirical test of informal labeling process Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2023-09-27 Wonki Lee
Despite the revitalization of labeling theory in explaining deviant behavior, the theoretical validity of the proposition regarding the informal labeling process has been largely neglected. To exam...
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An alternative intervention for juvenile hackers? A qualitative evaluation of the Hack_Right intervention Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2023-09-13 J. A. M. Schiks, Susanne van ’t Hoff-de Goede, Rutger E. Leukfeldt
ABSTRACT While traditional crime rates are decreasing, cybercrime is on the rise. As a result, the criminal justice system is increasingly dealing with criminals committing cyber-dependent crimes. However, to date there are no effective interventions to prevent recidivism in this type of offenders. Dutch authorities have developed an intervention program, called Hack_Right. Hack_Right is an alternative
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Is a gender-morality or gender-control gap responsible for male-female differences in delinquency? cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2023-08-30 Glenn D. Walters
This study tested for gender-morality and gender-control gaps that might explain sex differences in crime in a group of 2,718 early adolescent youth (1,309 boys and 1,409 girls; mean age = 12.12 ye...
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Virtuous effects of religion on negative emotions among offenders in a Colombian prison Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2023-08-25 Sung Joon Jang, Byron R. Johnson, Matthew Lee Anderson
Although prior research documents a positive relationship between religious involvement and emotional well-being among incarcerated individuals, the salutary effect of religion on mental health rem...
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Moral intuitions, punishment ideology, and judicial sentencing Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2023-08-18 Jason R. Silver, Jeffery T. Ulmer
Considerable research examines discretion in judicial sentencing. However, little is known about the role of moral values or ideological beliefs in judicial sentencing decisions. The current study ...
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Risky digital behavior or risky digital places? Victimization risk perception and evaluation on the internet Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2023-08-15 Rachel L. McNealey, Adam Ghazi-Tehrani
ABSTRACT This study applies context-based approaches to victimization risk perception in digital spaces. Vignettes are randomly assigned to a convenience sample of internet users and analyzed to determine how digital location and user behavior affects perceived likelihood of malware victimization and objective risk evaluation. Means-differences tests between conjoint treatment groups show statistically
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To intervene or not intervene: the role of moral disengagement, self-control, and empathy in bullying bystander intervention Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2023-07-28 Erica R. Fissel, Sara L. Bryson
Prior research has documented that bystanders to bullying incidents play an important role in preventing and discontinuing bullying victimization among adolescents. However, there is little researc...
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Deciding to commit crime in adolescence: do moral beliefs matter? Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2023-07-27 Anastasiia Timmer, Olena Antonaccio, Ekaterina V. Botchkovar, Lorine A. Hughes
Recent research has underscored the importance of thoughtful and reflective decision-making (TRDM) abilities of youth in preventing and reducing crime and delinquency. Yet, little attention has bee...
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Getting down to work: the employment attitudes of persons with a felony conviction and their behavioral implications Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2023-07-03 Karol Lucken, Julie Brancale
The employment of persons with a felony conviction has been historically problematic. This has been partly attributed to deficits in educational/vocational training and interpersonal skills as well...
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Symbolic interactionism, role-identities, and delinquency: examining the moderating role of social rewards Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2023-06-30 Jennifer O’Neill
Criminological research consistently supports that reflected appraisals in various domains predict delinquency, yet, extant work has not fully explored theoretical nuances outlined in traditional s...
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Explaining cybercrime victimization using a longitudinal population-based survey experiment. Are personal characteristics, online routine activities, and actual self-protective online behavior related to future cybercrime victimization? Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2023-06-13 M.S. van ’t Hoff-de Goede, S. van de Weijer, R. Leukfeldt
ABSTRACT With the increasing prevalence of cybercrime victimization there is a growing need for prevention. Previous studies have attempted to uncover risk factors associated with cybercrime victimization in the areas of personal characteristics and online routine activities. This article aims to take the field a step further by including actual self-protective online behavior, obtained through a population-based
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Becoming a hacktivist. Examining the motivations and the processes that prompt an individual to engage in hacktivism Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2023-05-29 Marco Romagna, Rutger E. Leukfeldt
ABSTRACT Hacktivism is a rising phenomenon in the cyber landscape combining elements of the hacking subculture with ideologically motivated agendas inspired both by traditional activism and by new elements of the digital culture. Despite several studies on the topic, it is still not completely clear what motivates an individual to engage in this type of collective action and if the reasons can be compared
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From the virtual frontlines: law enforcement’s experience with social media in policing activities Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2023-05-19 F. Fortin, C. Kentzinger, J. Delle Donne, J. Chopin
ABSTRACT Social media is increasingly used by both the public and police agencies. While numerous studies have documented the use of social media to communicate with the public, little research has focused on the use of social media in policing activities such as criminal intelligence and investigation. The objective of this research is to understand the use of social media in different policing activities
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Introduction to the special issue on measurement and methodology: addressing challenges and exploring opportunities Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2023-05-18 Julie Hibdon, Joseph Schafer, Michael Kyle
Published in Journal of Crime and Justice (Vol. 47, No. 1, 2024)
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Who gets to go home? Examining the correlates of parole release for the elderly and non-elderly Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2023-04-27 Beatriz Amalfi Wronski, Stuti S. Kokkalera
Concerns over state and federal correctional budgets and the motivation to undo decades of mass incarceration have placed the institution of parole under the spotlight. While there is research on t...
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The association between professional sporting events and police calls for service in San Antonio, Texas Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2023-04-27 Ryan Bagwell, Kristina Block, Wanda E. Leal, Alex R. Piquero
The influence of sporting events on crime is an important but under-researched area in criminology. Although this literature is growing, it mostly focuses on whether crime changes in the city/area ...
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Mixed-sex peer groups and violent delinquency: understanding the separate and combined influence of mixed-sex peer groups, sex, and romance on violent delinquency Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2023-04-25 Kate K. O’Neill
Prior studies suggest peer group sex composition is an important correlate of delinquency, but these studies often conflate the influence of other-sex peers with that of romantic and intimate partn...
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Adolescent attitudes toward police and crime reporting intentions Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2023-04-24 Makayla Burden, Chris Melde, Edmund F. McGarrell, Justin E. Heinze, Susan Franzen, Kevin Michaels
Positive interactions with police among youth can help establish long-lasting positive attitudes toward police (ATP). A particularly important aspect of the relationship between juveniles and the p...
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“Governed by the streets”: the importance of streetworkers’ perspectives on factors influencing their clients’ engagement in crime or violence Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2023-04-13 Janese Free, Jenna Wilson, Elisabeth Carse, Emma Frushell
ABSTRACT This exploratory study examines youth violence prevention streetworkers’ perspectives on the causes of their clients’ engagement in crime and violence. This study draws on in-depth, semi-structured interviews conducted with 37 streetworkers (SWs) in a large city in the northeastern region of the United States. As ‘street-level’ bureaucrats (SLBs; Lipsky 2010 Lipsky, M. 2010. Street-Level Bureaucracy:
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How stable is the relationship between gang membership and delinquency over time? An exploratory analysis using repeated cross-sectional data from students in one state, 2001-2017 Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2023-04-06 Adam M. Watkins
ABSTRACT Some ethnographic research suggests that the criminogenic effect of gang membership may not be invariant over time, yet this possibility has gone untested despite the expansive body of research on potential moderators of gang involvement. This research used nine years of self-report data from high school students in Massachusetts (N = 22,120) to explore whether the effect of gang membership
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Prison behavior and the self: exploring the relationship between different forms of identity and prison misconduct Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2023-03-21 Michael Rocque, Grant Duwe, Valerie A. Clark
Identity or self-concept has long been theorized to explain rule-violating behavior. Life-course criminology scholarship has incorporated identity as a core concept explaining desistance or disenga...
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Sentinel event reviews: applications in criminal justice settings Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2023-03-03 Edmund F. McGarrell, Natalie Kroovand Hipple, Mallory O’Brien
Sentinel event reviews were developed in the medical, military, and aviation fields and involve systematic assessment of the processes that resulted in a critical event such as an unexpected death ...
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Screening for mental health and its correlates in criminal justice settings: is the inclusion of general personality and antisocial traits leading to biased estimation? Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2023-02-27 Jason L. Payne, Cameron T. Langfield
ABSTRACT Replication in the social sciences is a necessary but oft-forgotten reality. In the Australian context, cross-cultural replication is an uncommon and relatively scarce practice. This study provides the first detailed analysis of the Corrections Mental Health Screen (Male) in an Australian setting. Using data for a national sample of 620 male police detainees interviewed as part of the Drug
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Protecting against the Ferguson Effect: do legitimacy and pro-policing news matter? Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2023-02-23 Jane Florence Gauthier, Lisa M. Graziano
ABSTRACT The Ferguson Effect is the argument that negative publicity on policing will cause officers to engage in de-policing. We explore this premise by examining the roles of legitimacy and media awareness in terms of police ability to protect against the negative impacts of such publicity. Officers from a midsize police agency in California were surveyed regarding media consumption and awareness
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A holistic approach to diversity recruiting in state police agencies Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2023-02-20 Frederick A. Williams Jr, George E. Higgins
ABSTRACT This qualitative study seeks to fill a gap in the literature by providing state police agencies with specific strategies to improve diversity recruitment and hiring. Enhanced agency legitimacy is discussed as a potential by-product of creating a more diverse workforce. The intent of this study is not to evaluate legitimacy or prove diversity recruitment will positively affect the overall perceptions
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Online news media and the framing of the executions under the Trump administration Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2023-02-14 Andrew J. Baranauskas
ABSTRACT The federal government executed thirteen individuals in the last seven months of the Trump administration. While American media discourse in 2020 was focused largely on other events such as the COVID-19 pandemic and the presidential election, the news media nevertheless served as a key source of information about the executions to the American public. This study examines accounts of the executions
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‘Incels are shit-post kings’: incels’ perceptions of online forum content Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2023-01-23 Sarah E. Daly, Annie Laurie Nichols
Research about involuntary celibates, or incels, has often relied on indirect texts such as internet forums and discussions as a source of data for qualitative analysis. Using direct qualitative da...
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Can streetblock 311 physical incivility call count shifts predict later changing on-site conditions? Gauging ecological construct validity of 311 litter calls Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2023-01-02 Ralph B. Taylor, Brian Lockwood, Brian R. Wyant
Statement of the problem. 311 call data are replacing on-site assessments as a popular alternative metric to gauge urban streetblock conditions, including physical incivilities like litter, trash a...
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Skin color and Latines’ perceptions of criminal injustice toward Black people: a path analysis Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2022-12-27 Alexander H. Updegrove, Maisha N. Cooper, Fei Luo, Chris Guerra
ABSTRACT Since melanin levels cannot cause anything, this study hypothesized that Latines’ skin color would initially predict perceptions of anti-Black police and CJ system bias. Once Latines’ personal experiences with discrimination were considered, however, discrimination was hypothesized to fully mediate the relationship between skin color and perceptions of anti-Black police and CJ system bias
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Assessing the effects of immigrant status on placement in juvenile detention Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2022-12-26 Zachary Buckner, D’Andre Walker
ABSTRACT The United States hosts more immigrants than any country in the world and has been referred to as a nation of immigrants. While there has been a persistent focus on immigration in America, the focal point has typically been on the criminality of those who have migrated to the US. Overtime, negative rhetoric in the media and politics has stereotyped immigrants as criminals. Despite these negative
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An investigation of the impact of the pandemic era on shooting victimizations in Detroit, Michigan Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2022-12-13 Alaina De Biasi, Giovanni Circo, Julie Krupa, Amanda Rzotkiewicz, Juli Liebler
ABSTRACT Despite the devastating effects of firearm violence on individuals, families, and communities, research on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on firearm violence remains at a minimum. Our study contributes to this body of research by estimating the impact of two critical pandemic era timeframes on fatal and nonfatal shooting victimizations in Detroit, Michigan, using an innovative Bayesian
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The role of trauma-informed practices and individual factors on perceptions of safety among staff in secure juvenile detention settings Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2022-12-08 Carly Lyn Baetz, Michael Surko, Amanda Bart, Fei Guo, Ava Alexander, Alison McCann, Jennifer Havens, Sarah McCue Horwitz
ABSTRACT Despite an increased focus on trauma-informed care within the juvenile justice system, we still know very little about the impact of trauma on juvenile justice professionals or their perceptions of trauma-informed interventions. To fill this gap, this study used an organizational assessment to examine perceptions of trauma-informed care among juvenile professionals in a juvenile detention
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Examining the mediating role of peer antisocial behavior on the relationship between parenting and bullying behaviors Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2022-11-23 Narim Lee, James V. Ray, Jennifer H. Peck
ABSTRACT Although prior research has established the influence of parents and peers on adolescents’ bullying behaviors, there is a void in the literature of the potential mediating effect of negative peer influence in the relationship between parenting practices and bullying behaviors among a United States sample. Using data from the Pathways to Desistance study, the present study examines the mediating
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Marketized mentality and instrumental offending: the overlooked roles of noneconomic institutions and relative deprivation in individual level institutional anomie theory Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2022-10-29 Stephen W. Baron
ABSTRACT This research examines the individual level extension to institutional anomie theory and explores the link between a marketized mentality and instrumental offending. Further, it investigates the direct roles that family, school and relative deprivation play in offending and probes their possible moderating impact on the relationship between a marketized mentality and illegal activities. Utilizing
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The environmental and organizational determinants of county prosecutor salaries Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2022-09-21 Myunghyun Choi, Matthew Giblin
ABSTRACT National surveys show that criminal justice organizations must devote considerable energy to recruiting qualified personnel and, in some cases, they struggle to attract sufficient applicant pools. To address these problems, organizations may use salary as a means of attracting candidates. From a contingency theory perspective, pay should be higher when the demands of the work and the nature
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Regions of discrimination: felony records, race, and expressed college admissions policies Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2022-09-20 Douglas N. Evans, Victor St. John, Jason Szkola, Shaylyn Lyons
ABSTRACT Criminal records can have consequences for higher education attainment despite the benefits of college degrees for formerly incarcerated people. Using stratified random sampling of colleges and universities across the 50 states, this study examines how higher education institutions claim to use felony history in admission decisions, and the impact of race, geography, and institutional factors
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Reading rights and respecting decisions: an experimental test of consent search warnings Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2022-09-02 Rhys Hester
ABSTRACT Consent waivers are a leading source of warrantless searches, although there is considerable debate whether these searches are truly knowing and voluntary. Scholars have called for Miranda-like warnings informing subjects of their right to refuse consent, which the Supreme Court has rejected. Some empirical evidence suggests that consent warnings would be ineffective, but no study evaluates
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Trajectories of income offending: examining PTSD as a predictor of development Journal of Crime and Justice (IF 1.292) Pub Date : 2022-09-02 Thomas Wojciechowski
ABSTRACT Income offending presents a major criminal justice issue associated with generating financial gain through illicit means. Such crimes may cause financial harm on an individual level and lead to additional strain on our criminal justice system when criminals who engage in such offending are caught and prosecuted. Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) may present one mental health risk factor