The Kola Peninsula and Russian Lapland: A review of Late Weichselian glaciation
Introduction
The response of the Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets to recent climate change has firmly positioned ice sheets as a priority on the global research agenda (e.g. Joughin et al., 2014; Oppenheimer et al., 2019; Miles et al., 2020; Slater et al., 2020; van Kampenhout et al., 2020). However, attempting to quantify the response of ice sheets to future climate change remains challenging because of inadequate understanding of contemporary ice sheet dynamics (Kleman and Applegate, 2014). To circumvent this, studies of palaeo-ice sheets, such as the Fennoscandian Ice Sheet (herein referred to as the FIS), can provide insights into ice discharge history and the scale of ice sheet responses to past climatic changes (Kleman and Applegate, 2014; Stokes et al., 2015; Stroeven et al., 2016). The reconstruction of palaeo-ice sheets can also provide the initial boundary conditions for climate models and can be used to test the accuracy of numerical ice sheet models, which are essential for predicting future ice sheet response to anthropogenic climate change (Stokes et al., 2015; Pearce et al., 2017).
The FIS has attracted considerable research interest since the mid-19th Century (Agassiz, 1840; De Geer, 1884, 1912, 1912; Sauramo, 1918, 1923, 1923; Mannerfelt, 1949; Lundqvist, 1972; Andersen, 1979; Andersen et al., 1995a; Punkari, 1995; Kleman et al., 1997; Svendsen et al., 2004; Hättestrand and Clark, 2006b; Hughes et al., 2016; Stroeven et al., 2016). The FIS nucleated in the Scandinavian Mountains of northern Sweden and southern Norway, terminating in lobate ice margins with strong topographic steering in pre-existing valleys (Patton et al., 2016; Stroeven et al., 2016). Geomorphological and chronometric data indicate that the FIS experienced asynchronous growth i.e. the timing of peak ice volume and maximum ice extent (referred to as the local-Last Glacial Maximum (local-LGM)) differed across the ice sheet (Svendsen et al., 2004; Hughes et al., 2016; Stroeven et al., 2016). For example, the FIS reached its maximum configuration c. 27–26 ka on the Norwegian continental shelf, but did not attain its maximum lateral extent until c. 23–22 ka in northern Europe (Hughes et al., 2016; Stroeven et al., 2016). However, it is generally regarded that the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) of the FIS occurred between c. 26.5 and 20 ka (Fig. 1a; Clark et al., 2009).
Increased summer insolation and climatic warming c. 14.6 ka, known as the Bølling oscillation (as seen in the Greenland Ice Core Chronology (GICC05)), induced the rapid retreat of the FIS (Lehman et al., 1991; Clark et al., 2009; Rasmussen et al., 2014; Stroeven et al., 2016; Patton et al., 2017). Retreat continued throughout the Last Glacial-Interglacial Transition (LGIT; c. 20–10 ka) until the final demise of the FIS at approximately 10 ka (Cuzzone et al., 2016; Stroeven et al., 2016; Regnéll et al., 2019). Like the growth of the ice sheet, the pattern of deglaciation was asynchronous (Boulton et al., 2001; Hughes et al., 2016), with subglacial conditions and topographic constraints influencing the rate of deglaciation (Kleman et al., 2008; Stroeven et al., 2016). In addition, the overall retreat of the FIS was interrupted by several standstills and readvances of the ice margin during which end moraines and glaciofluvial sediments were deposited in response to climatic cooling anomalies (Hughes et al., 2016; Stroeven et al., 2016; Patton et al., 2017). The last extensive zone of end moraines is attributed to the Younger Dryas stadial (c. 12.9–11.7 ka; Rasmussen et al., 2014), an ice marginal zone that can be traced almost continuously around Fennoscandia (Fig. 1b; Andersen et al., 1995a; Hughes et al., 2016; Stroeven et al., 2016). Particular emphasis has been given to this ice marginal zone (Fig. 1b) as it is often used to constrain numerical ice sheet models and understand how palaeo-ice sheets responded to abrupt climatic warming during the Younger Dryas-Holocene transition (c. 11.7 ka; Andersen et al., 1995a; Mangerud et al., 2011; Stroeven et al., 2016; Patton et al., 2017). As a result of this considerable body of research, the pattern, style, and timing of FIS glaciation during the Late Weichselian (c. 40–10 ka) is largely well understood, allowing numerical ice sheet models to be tested across most of the FIS (Patton et al., 2016, 2017).
Despite such research, the details of glaciation remain elusive for one sector of the FIS; the Kola Peninsula and Russian Lapland (within Murmansk Oblast federal subject, northwest Arctic Russia; Fig. 1). The glacial landform and sediment assemblages of this region have been studied for over 100 years, either as small-scale mapping projects (e.g. Grigoryev, 1934; Yevzerov and Kolka, 1993; Superson, 1994; Pękala, 1998; Superson and Zgłobicki, 1998; Hättestrand et al., 2007; Hättestrand et al., 2008; Yevzerov, 2009; Yevzerov and Nikolaeva, 2010; Yevzerov, 2015; Lunkka et al., 2018; Yevzerov, 2018) or large-scale glacial reconstructions (e.g. Ramsey, 1898; Lavrova, 1960; Apukhtin and Ekman, 1967; Krasnov et al., 1971; Strelkov, 1976; Apukhtin et al., 1977; Niemelä et al., 1993; Svendsen et al., 2004; Hättestrand and Clark, 2006a, 2006b; Winsborrow et al., 2010; Petrov et al., 2014; Astakhov et al., 2016; Hughes et al., 2016; Stroeven et al., 2016). Early maps of the Quaternary geology of the Kola Peninsula and Russian Lapland, showing the spatial distribution of morainic and glaciofluvial deposits, and drumlins, permitted reconstructions of ice sheet extent (Lavrova, 1960; Niemelä et al., 1993). Most notably, Hättestrand and Clark (2006a) present a comprehensive glacial geomorphological map of the region that details the spatial distribution of subglacial bedforms (drumlins and ribbed moraine), morainic and glaciofluvial deposits, and meltwater channels (Fig. 2). While this research facilitates the reconstruction of ice flow configuration (Hättestrand and Clark, 2006b; Winsborrow et al., 2010), the resolution of the Landsat 7 ETM+ data (30 m ground resolution) used to compile the map precludes the identification of discrete, smaller-scale landforms.
The Kola Peninsula and Russian Lapland was uniquely situated at the confluence of three dynamically different ice masses during the Late Weichselian: (i) the FIS, a continental ice sheet with a largely cold-based central region that nucleated to the west of the peninsula (Kleman et al., 1997; Kleman and Hättestrand, 1999; Stroeven et al., 2016); (ii) the White Sea Ice Stream, a major ice stream located at the southern margin of the peninsula that drained the northeastern sector of the FIS; and (iii) the Barents Sea Ice Sheet, a marine ice sheet that coalesced with the FIS off the northern coastline of the peninsula (Boulton et al., 2001; Hättestrand and Clark, 2006a; Yevzerov, 2015; Hughes et al., 2016; Stroeven et al., 2016). Note that the White Sea Ice Stream and Fennoscandian Ice Sheet are in fact part of the same overall ice mass, despite being discussed here as two dynamically different ice masses. Some authors postulate that an ice mass on the Kola Peninsula and an ice lobe draining through the White Sea may have played an important role in ice sheet dynamics of the Barents Sea Ice Sheet and, later, influenced Arctic Ocean circulation during the LGIT (Hättestrand et al., 2007; Winsborrow et al., 2010; Hughes et al., 2016; Stroeven et al., 2016). However, a relatively sparse glacial chronology (48 age estimates included in existing glacial reconstructions e.g. Hughes et al., 2016; Stroeven et al., 2016) means that the timing of ice sheet extent and dynamics on the Kola Peninsula and Russian Lapland during the Late Weichselian is not well constrained (Hättestrand and Clark, 2006b; Hättestrand et al., 2007; Hughes et al., 2016; Stroeven et al., 2016). This stems, in part, from (i) the limited research attention given to the region, (ii) the publication of data mainly in Russian language journals where they remain largely unknown to non-Russian scientists, and (iii) the limited communication and transfer of knowledge between Russian and non-Russian scientists, particularly during Soviet times. As a result, the Kola Peninsula and Russian Lapland is one of several major sectors of the FIS where empirical geomorphological, sedimentological, and chronological data are lacking and thus, where the pattern, style, and timing of Late Weichselian glaciation is not well established (Hughes et al., 2016; Stroeven et al., 2016). Consequently, numerical ice sheet models for the FIS cannot be tested in this region (e.g. Patton et al., 2016; Patton et al., 2017), which precludes complete characterisation of an important sector of the FIS. Such information is crucial to understand how ice sheets respond to climatic changes over geological timescales.
In this contribution, we provide a critical review of all known (to the authors) previously published empirical data and interpretations of Late Weichselian glaciation on the Kola Peninsula and Russian Lapland. Our main aims are to discuss and critically evaluate (where possible) all available (i) glacial geomorphological mapping, sedimentary analyses, and numerical dating studies, including (for the first time) information published in Russian-language journals, (ii) conflicting interpretations of glacial dynamics, and (iii) LGIT glaciation scenarios and Younger Dryas ice margin positions. We stress where possible, as not all information presented in this paper can be critically evaluated, especially where data are sparse (or indeed the only data that exist) in a particular region, or where glacial interpretations have been presented with limited supporting data. In addition, we present a database of all known (to date) numerical ages from the Kola Peninsula and Russian Lapland. By collating, discussing, and critically evaluating empirical data and interpretations, this paper provides a resource for future researchers to inform FIS dynamics at both a regional- and ice sheet-scale. In addition, it acts as a critical first step in providing a framework through which numerical ice sheet models can be constrained. All such information is crucial to furthering our understanding of contemporary ice sheet dynamics in other Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine regions. Given recent advances in palaeo-ice sheet reconstruction, we recommend that further work is needed in the form of a revised glacial reconstruction using high-resolution, regional-scale geomorphological data to determine, in greater detail, the pattern, style, and timing of Late Weichselian glaciation on the Kola Peninsula and Russian Lapland.
Section snippets
Methods
In this study we critically evaluate all known published glacial geomorphological mapping, sedimentary analyses, and numerical dating studies and associated interpretations of Late Weichselian glacial dynamics from the Kola Peninsula and Russian Lapland. Our approach is based on methods outlined by Hughes et al. (2016) and Stroeven et al. (2016) in which geomorphological data are examined in a Geographic Information System (GIS) setting using ESRI® ArcMap™ 10.7.1. Published shapefile data were
Evidence for glaciation of the Kola Peninsula and Russian Lapland
The Kola Peninsula and Russian Lapland has an abundance of glacial, periglacial, and paraglacial landforms and sediments. This section critically evaluates the existing evidence for, and interpretations of, Late Weichselian glaciation in the region. To facilitate this, the study area is divided into three sectors guided by topography and ice sheet signatures (Fig. 1c): (i) the Khibiny and Lovozero Mountains; (ii) the western Kola Peninsula and Russian Lapland; and (iii) the eastern Kola
Glacial reconstructions for the Kola Peninsula and Russian Lapland
The preceding review demonstrates that the Kola Peninsula and Russian Lapland are rich in glacial landforms and sediments. Despite this, the pattern, style, and timing of glaciation during the Late Weichselian across the region remains under debate (Hughes et al., 2016; Stroeven et al., 2016). In this section we draw together the current understanding of glaciation on the Kola Peninsula and Russian Lapland.
Discussion
This review has (i) consolidated and critically evaluated (where possible) the suite of glacial landforms and sediments, as well as previous glacial interpretations, for the Kola Peninsula and Russian Lapland for the first time, and (ii) added new detail to existing FIS reconstructions (e.g. Hughes et al., 2016; Stroeven et al., 2016). It has done so by drawing together previously unutilised and/or inaccessible Russian publications and compiling a comprehensive database of all known (to date)
Conclusion
Understanding ice sheet processes and rates of ice advance and retreat is important given current and projected responses of the Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets to climate change. However, previous glacial reconstructions have thus far failed to determine the pattern, style, and timing of FIS glaciation on the Kola Peninsula and Russian Lap-land. This is due to an incomplete understanding of glacial geomorphology and sedimentology in the region, combined with a limited glacial chronology. In
Author contributions
BMB, LDL, DP, VVK, and DJN conceived the original study. Overall manuscript development was led by BMB. All authors contributed to the preparation of the final manuscript.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
Andrey Vashkov (Geological Institute of Kola Science Centre of the Russian Academy of Sciences) is gratefully acknowledged for providing access to the literature published in Russian-language journals. Special thanks are given to our co-author Professor Vasili V. Kolka who sadly passed away in April 2020. Anna Hughes, Richard Gyllencreutz, and a third anonymous reviewer are gratefully acknowledged for their constructive reviews. This work was undertaken while BMB was in receipt of a University
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