A Theory of Media Multitasking Intensity
Abstract
Abstract. This article first situates media multitasking in the changing media ecology. Then, grounded in concepts of stress and flow, limited capacity, and threaded cognition, it develops a four-dimensional theory of media multitasking intensity. Based on the key aspects of media multitasking intensity, the subsequent section proposes two primary influences (executive functioning and self-regulation) and one primary outcome (general stress). An application example focuses on several media multitasking issues and the stress outcome for adolescents within their family environment. The final section suggests a few key methodological implications for studying the theory of media multitasking intensity (self-report, and both temporal and social contexts). The theory of media multitasking intensity generates insights about the functional (i.e., valuable) variation within experiences of media as they overlap with and interrupt experiences of the physical and mediated world.
References
(2016). The theory of resilience and relational load. Personal Relationships, 23(4), 663–683. https://doi.org/10.1111/pere.12159
(2018). WIRED: The impact of media and technology use on stress (cortisol) and inflammation (interleukin IL-6) in fast paced families. Computers in Human Behavior, 81, 265–273. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.12.010
(2013). The association between media multitasking, task-switching, and dual-task performance. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 39(5), 1485–1495. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031208
(2012). Barkley Deficits in Executive Functioning Scale – Children and Adolescents (BDEFS-CA). The Guilford Press.
(2016).
Strength model of self-regulation as limited resource: Assessment, controversies, update . In M. ZannaJ. OlsonEds., Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 54, pp. 78–128). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.aesp.2016.04.001(2017). Dealing with media distractions: An observational study of computer-based multitasking among children and adults in the Netherlands. Journal of Children and Media, 27(May), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/17482798.2017.1304971
(2014). The relationship between media multitasking and executive function in early adolescents. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 34(8), 1120–1144. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431614523133
(2013). Media multitasking is associated with symptoms of depression and social anxiety. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 16(2), 132–135. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2012.0291
(2017). Extraversion, neuroticism, attachment style and fear of missing out as predictors of social media use and addiction. Personality and Individual Differences, 116, 69–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.04.039
(2004). Loss, trauma, and human resilience: Have we underestimated the human capacity to thrive after extremely aversive events? American Psychologist, 59, 20–28. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.59.1.20
(2010). Can students really multitask? An experimental study of instant messaging while reading. Computers & Education, 54, 927–931. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2009.09.024
(2014). It’s complicated: The social lives of networked teens. Yale University Press.
(2011). Media multitasking behavior: Concurrent television and computer usage. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 14(9), 527–534. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2010.0350f
(2010). Electronic media use and sleep in school-aged children and adolescents: A review. Sleep medicine, 11, 735–742. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2010.02.006
(2016). Technology consumption and cognitive control: Contrasting action video game experience with media multitasking. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 78(1), 218–241. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13414-015-0988-0
(2015).
Executive function in risky online behaviors by adolescents and young adults . In L. D. RosenN. A. CheeverL. M. CarrierEds., The Wiley handbook of psychology, technology, and society (pp. 117–141). Wiley-Blackwell.(2015).
Mobile phone multitasking and learning . In Y. ZhengEd., Encyclopedia of mobile phone behavior (pp. 82–92). IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-4666-8239-9.ch007(1998). Resilience and thriving: Issues, models, and linkages. Journal of Social Issues, 54(2), 245–266. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1998.tb01217.x
(2017). Smartphones and cognition: A review of research exploring the links between mobile technology habits and cognitive functioning. Frontiers in Psychology, 8(April), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00605
(2000). Happiness, flow, and economic equality. American Psychologist, 55(10), 1163–1164. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.10.1163
(2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 135–168. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750
(2017). Commentary: What’s in a word (or words) – on the relations among self-regulation, self-control, executive functioning, effortful control, cognitive control, impulsivity, risk-taking, and inhibition for developmental psychopathology – reflections on Nigg. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 58(4), 384–386. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12707
(2014). Beyond allostatic load: Rethinking the role of stress in regulating human development. Development and Psychopathology, 26(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579413000849
(2019). Attention, working memory, and media multitasking. Proceedings from ICA ‘19: The International Communication Association, Washington DC.
(2010). State and trait affectionate communication buffer adults’ stress reactions. Communication Monographs, 77(4), 618–636. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637751.2010.49879
(1986). Dynamics of a stressful encounter: Cognitive appraisal, coping, and encounter outcomes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50(5), 992–1003. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.50.5.992
(2009). Distractions, distractions: Does instant messaging affect college students’ performance on a concurrent reading comprehension task? CyberPsychology & Behavior, 12(1), 51–53. https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.2008.0107
(2021). Permanently online – always stressed out? The effects of permanent connectedness on stress experiences. Human Communication Research, 47(2), 132–165. https://doi.org/10.1093/hcr/hqaa014
(2008). In-class laptop use and its effects on student learning. Computers & Education, 50, 906–914. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2006.09.006
Gross, J. J. (Eds.). (2014). The handbook of emotional regulation (2nd ed.). The Guilford Press.
(2009). The strength model of self-regulation failure and health-related behaviour. Health Psychology Review, 3(2), 208–238. https://doi.org/10.1080/17437190903414387
(2011). Brain activity and desire for Internet video game play. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 52(1), 88–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2010.04.004
(2017).
Mobile experience sampling method (MESM) . In J. MatthesC. S. DavisR. F. PotterEds., The international encyclopedia of communication research methods. Wiley-Blackwell. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118901731.iecrm0157(2007). Experience sampling method: Measuring the quality of everyday life. Sage Publications.
(2016). Reward, learning and games. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 10, 65–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2016.04.015
(2010). Did you see the unicycling clown? Inattentional blindness while walking and talking on a cell phone. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 24, 597–607. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.1638
(2011). The wired generation: Academic and social outcomes of electronic media use among university students. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 14, 275–280. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2010.0135
(2017). Media and families: Looking ahead. Journal of Family Communication, 17(3), 203–207. https://doi.org/10.1080/15267431.2017.1322972
(2016). Media multitasking effects on cognitive vs. attitudinal outcomes: A meta-analysis. Human Communication Research, 42(4), 599–618. https://doi.org/10.1111/hcre.12089
(2004). Healthy and unhealthy emotion regulation: Personality processes, individual differences, and life span development. Journal of Personality, 72(6), 1301–1333. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2004.00298.x
(2011). Measurement and evidence of computer-based task switching and multitasking by “Net Generation” students. Computers & Education, 56(3), 625–631. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2010.10.004
(2015). Student class standing, Facebook use, and academic performance. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 36, 18–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2014.11.001
(2011a). A decade of distraction? How multitasking affects student outcomes. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1927049
(2011b). Perceived academic effects of instant messaging use. Computers & Education, 56, 370–378. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2010.08.020
(2012). No A 4 U: The relationship between multitasking and academic performance. Computers & Education, 59, 505–514. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2011.12.023
(2010). Facebook® and academic performance. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(6), 1237–1245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2010.03.024
(2010). Examining the affects of student multitasking with laptops during the lecture. Journal of Information Systems Education, 21, 241–251. https://www.learntechlib.org/p/108510/
(2015).
Adolescent development and psychological mechanisms in interactive media use . In S. S. SundarEd., The handbook of the psychology of communication technology (pp. 332–364). Wiley-Blackwell. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118426456.ch15(2016). If I choose when to switch: Heavy multitaskers remember online content better than light multitaskers when they have the freedom to multitask. Computers in Human Behavior, 65, 567–575. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.09.011
(2009).
The limited capacity model of motivated media message processing . In R. L. NabiM. B. OliverEds., The SAGE handbook of media processes and effects (pp. 193–204). Sage.(2013). Discipline in crisis? The shifting paradigm of mass communication research. Communication Theory, 23(1), 10–24. https://doi.org/10.1111/comt.12000
(2015). Media multitasking: Good, bad, or ugly? Annals of the International Communication Association, 39(1), 99–128. https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985.2015.11679173
(2010). The problem of media habits. Communication Theory, 20(2), 194–222. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2885.2010.01360.x
(2015).
The psychology of interactive media habits . In S. S. SunderEd., The handbook of the psychology of communication technology (pp. 365–383). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118426456.ch16(2017). Effects of social media usage and social media multitasking on the academic performance of university students. Computers in Human Behavior, 68, 286–291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.11.043
(1985). The double ABCX model of family stress and adaptation: An empirical test by analysis of structural equations with latent variables. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 47(4), 811–825. https://doi.org/10.2307/352326
(1995). Perceptual load as a necessary condition for selective attention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 21(3), 451–468. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-1523.21.3.451
(1993). Coping theory and research: Past, present, and future. Psychosomatic Medicine, 55(3), 234–247. https://doi.org/10.1097/00006842-199305000-00002
(1984).
Coping and adaptation . In W. D. GentryEd., The handbook of behavioral medicine (pp. 282–325). Guilford Press.(2016). Information and communication technology overload and social networking service fatigue: A stress perspective. Computers in Human Behavior, 55, 51–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.08.011
(2014). The relationship between cell phone use, academic performance, anxiety, and satisfaction with life in college students. Computers in Human Behavior, 31, 343–350. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.10.049
(2017). Rethinking traditional methods of survey validation. Measurement, 15(2), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/15366367.2017.1348108
(2015).
“Technoference”: Everyday intrusions and interruptions of technology in couple and family relationships . In C. J. BruessEd., Family communication in the age of digital and social media (Chapter 11). Peter Lang Publishing.(2017). Technoference: Parent distraction with technology and associations with child behavior problems. Child Development, 89(1), 100–109. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12822
(2013). Working memory, fluid intelligence, and impulsiveness in heavy media multitaskers. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 20, 1274–1281. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-013-0456-6
(2016). The iPhone effect: The quality of in-person social interactions in the presence of mobile devices. Environment and Behavior, 48, 275–298. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916514539755
(2012). Psychological and health outcomes of perceived information overload. Environment and Behavior, 44(6), 737–759. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916511404408
(2015). Media and the family: Reflections and future directions. Journal of Children and Media, 9(1), 133–139.
(2010). Texting while driving: Psychosocial influences on young people’s texting intentions and behaviour. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 42, 1257–1265. http://eprints.qut.edu.au
(2017). Annual research review: On the relations among self-regulation, self-control, executive functioning, effortful control, cognitive control, impulsivity, risk-taking, and inhibition for developmental psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 58(4), 361–383. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12675
(2019). The Internet of Things: Review and theoretical framework. Expert Systems with Applications, 133, 97–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2019.05.014
(2009). Cognitive control in media multitaskers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 106(37), 15583–15587. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0903620106
(2012). Media use, face-to-face communication, media multitasking, and social well-being among 8- to 12-year-old girls. Developmental Psychology, 48(2), 327–336. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027030
. (2018). Internet/Broadband Fact Sheet. https://www.pewinternet.org/fact-sheet/internet-broadband/
(2018). A review and analysis of patterns of design decisions in recent media effects research. Review of Communication Research, 6, 1–29. https://doi.org/10.12840/issn.2255-4165.2018.06.01.014
(2013). Can you connect with me now? How the presence of mobile communication technology influences face-to-face conversation quality. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 30, 237–246. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407512453827
(2016). Overstimulated consumers or next-generation learners? Parent tensions about child mobile technology use. Annals of Family Medicine, 14, 503–508. https://doi.org/10.1370/afm.1976
(2017). Individual differences in media multitasking and performance on the n-back. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 79(2), 582–592. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13414-016-1260-y
(2014). Media multitasking and failures of attention in everyday life. Psychological Research, 78(5), 661–669. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-013-0523-7
(2017). Digital stress over the life span: The effects of communication load and Internet multitasking on perceived stress and psychological health impairments in a German probability sample. Media Psychology, 20(1), 90–115. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2015.1121832
(2017).
Media use and recreation: Media-induced recovery as a link between media exposure and well-being . In L. ReineckeM. B. OliverEds., The Routledge handbook of media use and well-being: International perspectives on theory and research on positive media effects (pp. 106–117). Routledge.(2018). Permanently online and permanently procrastinating? The mediating role of Internet use for the effects of trait procrastination on psychological health and well-being. New Media & Society, 20(3), 862–880. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444816675437
(2018). College students’ media mastery: Paradoxes in using computers and mobile phones. American Behavioral Scientist, 62(9), 1229–1250. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764218773408
(2013). Facebook and texting made me do it: Media-induced task-switching while studying. Computers in Human Behavior, 29, 948–958. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2012.12.001
(2011). An empirical examination of the educational impact of text message-induced task switching in the classroom: Educational implications and strategies to enhance learning. Psicología Educativa, 17(2), 163–177. https://doi.org/10.5093/ed2011v17n2a4
(2013). The Media and Technology Usage and Attitudes Scale: An empirical investigation. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(6), 2501–2511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.06.006
(2009). Toward a unified theory of the multitasking continuum: From concurrent performance to task switching, interruption, and resumption. In CHI’ 09: Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 1819–1828).
(2017). Adaptive smart technology use: The need for meta-self-regulation. Frontiers in Psychology, 8(March), 8–11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00298
(2017). I want to media multitask and I want to do it now: Individual differences in media multitasking predict delay of gratification and system-1 thinking. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications, 2(1), Article 8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41235-016-0048-x
(2017). Insight into everyday media use with multiple screens. International Journal of Advertising, 36(5), 779–797. https://doi.org/10.1080/02650487.2017.1348042
(2015). Message variability and heterogeneity: A core challenge for communication research. Annals of the International Communication Association, 39(1), 3–31. https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985.2015.11679170
(2017). Around the world, adolescence is a time of heightened sensation seeking and immature self-regulation. Developmental Science, 21(2), Article e12532. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12532
(2008). Social capital, self-esteem, and use of online social network sites: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 29(6), 434–445. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2008.07.002
(2018). When frequent media multitaskers perform worse and when they do not: The role of self-regulation ability and strategy manipulation. Computers in Human Behavior, 83, 184–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.01.043
(2011). Alone together: Why we expect more from technology and less from each other. Basic Books.
(2015). Reclaiming conversation: The power of talk in a digital age. Penguin.
(2016). Media multitasking and memory: Differences in working memory and long-term memory. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 23(2), 483–490. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-015-0907-3
(2013). The differential susceptibility to media effects model. Journal of Communication, 63(2), 221–243. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12024
(2016). Media effects: Theory and research. Annual Review of Psychology, 67(1), 315–338. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122414-033608
(2018). Media multitasking and sleep problems: A longitudinal study among adolescents. Computers in Human Behavior, 81, 316–324. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.12.024
(2013). Age differences in media multitasking: A diary study. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 57(3), 392–408. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838151.2013.816709
(2008). Families without borders: Mobile phones, connectedness and work-home divisions. Sociology, 42(4), 635–652. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038038508091620
(2016). Family resilience: A developmental systems framework. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 13(3), 313–324. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2016.1154035
(2015). Multidimensions of media multitasking and adaptive media selection. Human Communication Research, 41, 102–127. https://doi.org/10.1111/hcre.12042
(2012). The “myth” of media multitasking: Reciprocal dynamics of media multitasking, personal needs, and gratifications. Journal of Communication, 62(3), 493–513. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2012.01641.x
(2017). Brain drain: The mere presence of one’s own smartphone reduces available cognitive capacity. Journal of the Association for Consumer Research, 2(2), 140–154. https://doi.org/10.1086/691462
(2016). “Someday you’ll have children just like you”: What tomorrow’s parents can teach us about parental mediation research. Journal of Children and Media, 10(2), 173–180. https://doi.org/10.1080/17482798.2015.1130733
(2009). Theorizing flow and media enjoyment as cognitive synchronization of attentional and reward networks. Communication Theory, 19(4), 397–422. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2885.2009.01352.x
(2017). Cognitive control in media multitaskers: Two replication studies and a meta-analysis. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 79(8), 2620–2641. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13414-017-1408-4
(2012). Examining the impact of off-task multi-tasking with technology on real-time classroom learning. Computers & Education, 58, 365–374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2011.08.029
(2016). Media multitasking and well-being of university students. Computers in Human Behavior, 55, 242–250. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.08.040
(2018). The fragmentation of work, entertainment, E-Mail, and news on a personal computer: Motivational predictors of switching between media content. Media Psychology, 21(3), 377–402. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2017.1406805
(2015). Learning variables, in-class laptop multitasking and academic performance: A path analysis. Computers & Education, 81, 82–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2014.09.012
(2012). Explicating multitasking with computers: Gratifications and situations. Computers in Human Behavior, 28(5), 1883–1891.
