The Rise in Demand for Special Education in Ontario, Canada: A Focus on French-Language Schools
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.22329/jtl.v16i1.6578Abstract
Over the past several decades, teachers have been increasingly challenged with a greater diversity of learning profiles within their classrooms. Historically, within Ontario, Canada, students who did not learn effectively through traditional methods were labelled and separated into alternate learning environments. Legislation and policy transformation have resulted in greater inclusion and stigma reduction. Changes to formal and informal identification processes have also increased the number of students accessing special education services. This conceptual paper examines the challenges arising from students’ changing learning needs, with a specific focus on the French classroom. Issues related to the Individual Education Plan, the formal identification processes, and the inconsistency inherent to special education terminology and teachers’ preparation concerning differentiated learning and resources in special education are explored. Further, employing Katz and colleagues’ (Hymel & Katz, 2019; Katz, 2013; Katz & Sokal, 2016) three-block model of universal design for an inclusive classroom as a framework, a case study from a French-language secondary school in Ontario, Canada, is examined to determine systemic gaps that need to be addressed to achieve the goal of fully inclusive classrooms that promote successful learning experiences for all students.
References
Andrews, J., & Lupart, J. L. (2000). The inclusive classroom: Educating exceptional children (2nd ed.). Nelson Canada.
Arnett, K. (2003). Teacher adaptations in core French: A case study of one grade 9 classroom. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 60, 173–203. https://doi.org/10.3138/cmlr.60.2.173
Asperger’s Canada. (n.d). An introduction to special education in Ontario Ministry of Education. http://aspergers.ca/wp-content/uploads/media-library/article/pdfs/an_introduction_to_special_education.pdf
Association des Conseils Scolaires des Écoles Publiques de l'Ontario. (2016). School boards. https://www.acepo.org/en/french-language-public-school-boards/
Avramidis, E., Baylis, P., & Burden, R. (2000). Student teachers’ attitudes towards the inclusion of children with special education needs in the ordinary school. Teaching and Teacher Education, 16, 277–293.
Bateman, B. D., & Linden, M. A. (1998). Better IEPs: How to develop legally correct and educationally useful programs (3rd ed.). Sopris West.
Bennett, S. (2009, January). Including students with exceptionalities. The Literacy and Numeracy Secretariat and the Ontario Association of Deans of Education. http://www.wrdsb.ca/wp-content/uploads/sites/31/P24-Bennett.pdf
Bennett, S., Dworet, D., Gallagher, T. L., & Somma, M. (2019). Special education in Ontario schools (8th ed.). Highland Press.
Blackwell, W. H., & Rossetti, Z. S. (2014). The development of individualized education programs: Where have we been and where should we go now? Sage Open, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244014530411
Braunsteiner, M. L., & Mariano L. S. (2018). A perspective of inclusion: Challenges for the future. Global Education Review, 1(1), 32–43.
Brigham, F. J., Gustashaw III, W. E., Wiley, A. L., & St. Peter Brigham, M. (2004). Research in the wake of the No Child Left Behind Act: Why the controversies will continue and suggestions for controversial research. Behavioral Disorders, 29(3), 300–310.
Brown, R., & Andrew, J. (2014). Special education. The Canadian Encyclopedia. https://thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/special-education
Bunch, G., & Valeo, A. (2010). Student attitudes towards peers with disabilities in inclusive and special education schools. Disability & Society, 19, 61–76. https://doi.org/10.1080/0968759032000155640
Capizzi, A. M. (2008). From assessment to annual goal: Engaging a decision-making process in writing measurable IEPs. Teaching Exceptional Children, 41(1), 8–25. https://doi.org/10.1177/004005990804100102
Caplan, P. (2012, April 27). Psychiatry’s bible, the DSM, is doing more harm than good. Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/psychiatrys-bible-the-dsm-is-doing-more-harm-than-good/2012/04/27/gIQAqy0WlT_story.html
CBC Windsor News. (2019, December 16). Ontario French Catholic school board, CUPE local 4299 reach tentative collective agreement. https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/windsor/french-catholic-school-board-cupe-reach-tentative-collective-agreement-1.5397881
Christle, C. A., & Yell, M. L. (2010). Individualized education programs: Legal requirements and research findings. Exceptionality, 18(3), 109–123. https://doi.org/10.1080/09362835.2010.491740
Clandfield, D. (2014). Special education and streaming. Restacking the deck: Streaming by class, race and gender in Ontario schools. Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives. https://policyalternatives.ca/sites/default/files/uploads/publications/National%20Office/ 2014/02/osos114_cover_TOC_Intro.pdf
Cobb, C. (2013). “Membership has its privileges”: The elusive and influential nature of special education expertise. Equity, Engagement, Teaching and Learning, 7(3), 47–61. https://doi.org/10.26522/tl.v7i3.423
Conseil Scolaire Catholique Providence. (2011). Plan d' éducation d'enfance en difficulté [Special education plan]. https://www.cscprovidence.ca/apps/pages/index.jsp?uREC_ID=1091992&type=d&pREC_ID=1368328
Conseil Scolaire Catholique Providence. (2019a). Secondary school international program. Language International. https://www.languageinternational.ca/school/conseil-scolaire-catholique-providence-66846#courses
Conseil Scolaire Catholique Providence. (2019b). Plan d’éducation d’énfance en difficulté [Special education plan]. https://22.files.edl.io/c59e/02/04/22/140653-a5053311-27ee-4d74-b5b9-e6996eb1388a.pdf
Conseil Scolaire Viamonde. (2016). Plan pluriannual de l’enfance en difficulté 2016–17 [Multi-year special education plan 2016-17]. https://csviamonde.ca/fileadmin/viamonde/Administration/plan_pluriannuel_-_2016-2017_-_29-06-2016__finale_.doc
Conseil Scolaire Viamonde. (2017). Plan pluriannual de l’enfance en difficulté 2017-18 [Multiyear special education plan 2017-18]. https://csviamonde.ca/fileadmin/viamonde/Administration/plan_pluriannuel_-_2017-2018_-_final__002_.pdf
Conseil Scolaire Viamonde. (2018). Plan pluriannual de l’enfance en difficulté 2018–19 [Multi year special education plan 2018-19]. https://csviamonde.ca/fileadmin/viamonde/Administration/plan_pluriannuel_-_2018-2019_-_ebauche.pdf
Conseil Scolaire Viamonde. (2019). Plan pluriannual de l’enfance en difficulté 2019–20 [Multi year special education plan 2019-20]. https://csviamonde.ca/fileadmin/viamonde/plan_pluriannuel_-_2019-2020_-_ebauche.pdf
Conseil Scolaire Viamonde. (2020). Plan pluriannual de l’enfance en difficulté 2020–21 [Multi year special education plan 2020-21]. https://csviamonde.ca/fileadmin/viamonde/7642_vm_enfance_en_difficulte_2020-21_ACCESSIBLE.pdf
Cook, B. G. (2002). Inclusive attitude, strengths and weaknesses of pre-service general educators enrolled in a curriculum infusion teacher preparation program. Teacher Education and Special Education, 25(3), 262–277. https://doi.org/10.1177/088840640202500306
Council of Ministers of Education. (2008). Inclusive education in Canada: The way of the future. The Canadian Commission for UNESCO. https://www.cmec.ca/Publications/Lists/Publications/Attachments/122/ICE2008-reports-canada.en.pdf
Deani, V. P., Pennings, R., & Taylor, J. (2019). Funding fairness for students in Ontario with special education needs. Cardus Education. https://www.cardus.ca/research/education/reports/funding-fairness-for-students-in-ontario-with-special-education-needs/"
Delorey, J., Specht, J., Fairbrother, M., Ismailos, L., Villella, M., Chalres, E., Vanderloon, M., Gallagher, T., Howell, G., & Whitley, J. (2020). Experiences that shape pre-service teachers’ inclusive practice beliefs: A group concept mapping study. Journal of Inclusive Education. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2020.1862403
Demazeux, S., & Stingy, P. (Eds.). (2015). The DSM-5 in perspective: Philosophical Reflections on the Psychiatric Babel. Springer.
Demeris, H., Childs, R. A., & Jordon, A. (2007). The influence of students with special needs included in grade-3 classrooms on the large-scale achievement scores of students without special needs. Canadian Journal of Education/Revue Canadienne de l’Education, 30(3), 609–627. https://doi.org/10.2307/20466656
Durham District School Board. (2019). Special education report, 2020–2021. Inclusive Student Services. https://www.ddsb.ca/en/programs-and-learning/resources/Documents/Inclusive-Education/Special-Education-Plan.pdf
Ecks, S. (2016). The stranger absence of things in the ‘culture’ of the DSM-5. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 188, 142–143. https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.150268
Elementary Teachers’ Federation of Ontario. (2019). ETFO submission re Bill 124, Protecting a Sustainable Public Sector for Future Generations Act, 2019. https://www.etfo.ca/news-publications/publications/etfo-submission-to-the-standing-committee-on-finance-and-economic-affairs
France, A. J. (2012, May 11). The overdiagnosis of mental illness [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yuCwVnzSjWA
Frisby, C. L. (2020). Prejudice, stigma, privilege and oppression. Springer.
Education Act R.R.O. 1990, Regulation 298: Operations of School – General, Government of Ontario. (1990).
Greater Essex County District School Board. (2019). Special education plan 2019. https://www.publicboard.ca/Programs/specialeducation/Documents/2019%20Special%20Education%20Plan.pdf#search=Special%20education%20report%2C%202019%2E
Gregory, K. P. (2015). Individual education plan (IEP) development for children with developmental disabilities in Ontario’s public schools: A narrative case study inquiry [Doctoral dissertation, Western University]. Electronic Thesis and Dissertation Repository. https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4897&context=etd
Halton District School Board. (2018). Special education: Helping students grow, special education plan 2017–2018. https://www.hdsb.ca/our-board/Documents/SpecialEducationPlan.pdf
Hymel, S., & Katz, J. (2019). Designing classrooms for diversity: Fostering social inclusion. Educational Psychologist, 54(4), 331–339. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2019.1652098
Katz, J., & Sokal, L. (2016). Universal design for learning as a bridge to inclusion: A qualitative report of student voices. International Journal of Whole Schooling, 12(2), 36–63. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1118092.pdf
Katz, J., & Sugden, R. (2013). The three-block model of universal design for learning implementation in a high school. Canadian Journal of Educational Administration and Policy, 141, 1–28. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1008728.pdf
Lapkin, S., Mandy, C., & Arnott, S. (2009). Research perspectives on core French: A literature review. Canadian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 12(2). https://journals.lib.unb.ca/index.php/CJAL/article/view/19936
Lawrence-Brown, D. (2004). Differentiated instruction: Inclusive strategies for standards based learning that benefits the whole class. American Secondary Education, 32(3), 34–62. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41064522
Horizon Educational Consulting. (2016, June). Access to special education in Ontario in a social justice context: Identifying barriers and obstacles for students, parents, and teacher-parents in accessing special education in Ontario. https://www.ldao.ca/wp-content/uploads/Access_to_Special_Education_in_Ontario_in_a_Social_Justice_Context_June-2016.pdf
LeRoy, B., & Simpson, C. (1996). Improving students’ outcomes through inclusive education. Support for Learning, 11(1), 32–36. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9604.1996.tb00046.x
Liu, Q. (2015). Individual education plan (IEP) use by general classroom teachers [Masters thesis]. Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the University of Toronto]. https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/68679/1/Liu_Qingqing_201506_MT_MTRP.pdf
Loreman, T. (2010). Essential inclusive education-related outcomes for Alberta pre service teachers. Alberta Journal of Education Research, 56(2). 124–142. https://doi.org/10.11575/ajer.v56i2.55394
Loreman, T. (2014). Special education international perspectives: Practices across the globe. Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
Massouti, A. (2019). Rethinking teacher education for inclusion: A literature review. Canadian Journal for New Scholars in Education/Revue Canadienne des jeunes chercheures en éducation, 10(1), 160–168.
Mattatall, C. (2011). Using CBM to help Canadian elementary teachers write effective IEP goals. Exceptionality Education International, 21(1), 61–71. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.5206/eei.v21i1.7670
Mazurek, K., & Winzer, M. (2010). Legislation, policy and the inclusion of students with special needs: National glimpses. FWU Journal of Social Sciences, 4(1), 1–17.
McGhie-Richmond, D., Irvine, A., Loreman, T., Lea Cizman, J., & Lupart, J. (2013). Teacher perspective on inclusive education in rural Alberta, Canada. Canadian Journal of Education/Revue Canadienne de l’éducation, 36(1), 195–239. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1002317
Ministry of Education (2014, October). Support every child reach every student: An overview of special education. https://www.ldao.ca/wp-content/uploads/Special-Education-Overview-Oct-2014.pdf
Mitchell, D., Morton, M., & Hornby, G. (2010). Review of the literature on individual education plans: Report to the New Zealand ministry of education. https://ir.canterbury.ac.nz/bitstream/handle/10092/5766/12625188_Literature-Review-Use-of-the-IEP.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
Mullen, C. A. (2001). Disabilities awareness and the pre-service teacher: A blueprint of mentoring intervention. Journal of Education for Teaching, 27(1), 39–61. https://doi.org/10.1080/02607470120042537
Noor, K. B. M. (2008). Case study: A strategic methodology. American Journal of Applied Sciences, 5(11), 1602–1604. https://doi.org/10.3844/ajassp.2008.1602.1604
Office of the Auditor General of Ontario. (2010). 2010 annual report. https://www.auditor.on.ca/en/content/annualreports/arreports/en10/2010ar_en.pdf
Ontario Association of School Districts International (2020). What are school districts/school boards? https://www.oasdi.ca/ontario-school-districts/
Ontario College of Teachers. (n.d.) Registration guide: Requirements for becoming a teacher of general education in Ontario including multi-session programs. https://www.oct.ca/-/media/PDF/Requirements%20General%20Education%20Teacher/EN/general_education_teacher_e.pdf
Ontario Human Rights Commission. (2018). Policy on accessible education for students with disabilities. https://www.ohrc.on.ca/en/policy-accessible-education-students-disabilities
Ontario Ministry of Education. (2000). Standards for school boards’ special education plans. https://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/general/elemsec/speced/iepstand/iepstand.pdf
Ontario Ministry of Education. (2006). Policy/program memorandum no. 11. https://www.ontario.ca/document/education-ontario-policy-and-program-direction/policyprogram-memorandum-11
Ontario Ministry of Education. (2007). The identification, placement and review committee: Identifying the needs of exceptional pupils. https://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/general/elemsec/speced/identifi.html
Ontario Ministry of Education. (2009). Realizing the promise of diversity: Ontario’s equity and inclusive education strategy. http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/policyfunding/equity.pdf
Ontario Ministry of Education. (2013). Learning for all: A guide to effective assessment and instruction for all students, kindergarten to grade 12. http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/general/elemsec/speced/learningforall2013.pdf
Ontario Ministry of Education. (2017a). An introduction to special education in Ontario. http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/general/elemsec/speced/ontario.html
Ontario Ministry of Education. (2017b). Special education in Ontario: Kindergarten to grade 12: Policy and resource guide. https://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/document/policy/os/onschools_2017e.pdf
Ontario Ministry of Education. (2017c). Secondary: Student success teams. https://www.edu.gov.on.ca/morestudentsuccess/teams.html
Ontario Ministry of Education. (2018). French language education in Ontario. https://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/amenagement/initiative.html
Ontario Ministry of Education. (2019). 2019–20 education funding: A guide to the special education grant. https://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/funding/1920/SpecialEducationGuide2019-20.pdf
Ontario Ministry of Education. (2020). Education facts, 2018–2019. https://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/educationFacts.html
People for Education. (2013). Mind the gap: Inequality in Ontario’s schools: People for Education annual report on Ontario’s publicly funded schools 2013. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312117100_Annual_Report_on_Ontario%27s_Publicly_Funded_Schools_2013
People for Education. (2017). Competing priorities: People for Education annual report on Ontario’s publicly funded schools 2017. https://peopleforeducation.ca/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/P4E-annual-report-2017.pdf
People for Education. (2019). Annual report on Ontario’s publicly funded schools 2019. https://peopleforeducation.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/PFE-2019-Anual-REport.pdf
Pickersgill, M. D. (2014). Debating DSM-5: Diagnosis and the sociology of critique. Journal of Medical Ethics, 40(8), 521–525. https://doi.org/10.1136/medethics-2013-101762
Powell, J. J. W. (2006). Special education and the risk of becoming less educated. European Societies, 8(4), 577–599. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616690601002673
Rosas, C., Winterman, K. G., Kroeger, S., & Jones, M. M. (2009). Using a rubric to assess individualized education programs. International Journal of Applied Education Studies, 4(1), 47–57.
Rosenberg, M. S., & Walther-Thomas, C. (2014). Innovation, policy and capacity in special education teacher education: Competing demands in challenging times. Teacher Education and Special Education, 37(1), 77–81. https://doi.org/10.1177/0888406413516809
Rotter, K. (2014). IEP use by general and special education teachers. Sage Open, 4(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244014530410
Roy, M., Rivest, M. P., Namian, D., & Moreau, N. (2019). The critical reception of the DSM 5: Towards typology of audiences. Public Understanding of Science, 28(8), 932–948. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963662519868969
Shaddock, A., Macdonald, N., Hook, J., Giorcelli, L., & Arthur-Kelly, M. (2009). Disability, diversity and tides that lift all boats: Review of special education in the ACT. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265494993_Disability_Diversity_and_Tides_that_Lift_All_Boats_Review_of_Special_Education_in_the_ACT
Sharma, U., Shaukat, S., & Furlough, B. (2015). Attitudes and self-efficacy of preservice teacher towards inclusion in Pakistan. Journal of Research in Special Education Needs, 15(2), 97–105. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-3802.12071
Sokal, L., & Sharma, U. (2014). Canadian in-service teachers’ concerns, efficacy, and attitudes about inclusive teaching. Exceptionality Education International, 23(1), 59–71. https://doi.org/10.5206/eei.v23i1.7704
Specht, J., McGhie-Richmond, D., Loreman, T., Mirenda, P., Bennett, S., Gallagher, T., & Lyons, W. (2016). Teaching in inclusive classroom: Efficacy and beliefs of Canadian pre-service teachers. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 20(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2015.1059501
Spooner, F., Algozzine, B., Wood, C. L., & Hicks, S. C. (2010). What we know and need to know about teacher education and special education. Teacher Education and Special Education, 33(1), 44–54. https://doi.org/10.1177/0888406409356184
Stein, K. (2014). The politics and process of revising the DSM-5 and the impact of changes on dietetics. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, 114(3), 350–365. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jand.2013.12.011
Stone, D. (1997). Policy paradox: The art of political policy making. W.W. Norton & Company.
Tangen, D., & Beutel, D. (2017). Pre-service teachers’ perceptions of self as inclusive educators. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 21(1), 63–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2016.1184327
Thames Valley District School Boards. (2019). Special education plan, 2019–2020. https://www.tvdsb.ca/en/programs/resources/Documents/SpecialEducation/20192- Spec-Ed-Plan-complete.pdf
The Royal Commission on Education in Ontario. (1950). Report of the royal commission on education in Ontario 1950. Baptist Johnston. https://archive.org/details/reportofroyeduc1950onta/page/n5/mode/2up
Titone, C. (2005). The philosophy of inclusion: Roadblocks and remedies for the teacher and the teacher educator. The Journal of Educational Thought (JET)/revue de la Pensée Éducative, 39, 7–32.
Toronto District School Board (2019). Special education plan 2019. https://www.tdsb.on.ca/Portals/0/docs/Special_Education/2019TDSBSpecialEducationPlan.pdf
Tremblay, P., & Belley, S. (2017). Individualized education plan in Canada: A comparative analysis. International Journal for Cross-Disciplinary Subjects in Education, 8(1), 3017–3024. https://infonomics-society.org/wp-content/uploads/ijcdse/published-papers/volume-8-2017/Individualized-Education-Plans-in-Canada-A-Comparative-Analysis.pdf
University of Toronto. (2014). U of T news: Improving special needs education in Canada and abroad. https://www.utoronto.ca/news/improving-special-needs-education-canada-and-abroad
Watts, G. (2012). Critics attack DSM-5 for overmedicalising normal human behavior. British Medical Journal, 344(1020). https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.e1020
Weintraub, F. J. (2012). A half century of special education: What we have achieved and the challenges we face. Teaching Exceptional Children, 45(1), 50–53. https://doi.org/10.1177/004005991204500107
Windsor Essex Catholic District School Board. (2019). Special education plan 2019. https://p19cdn4static.sharpschool.com/UserFiles/Servers/Server_58369/File/Programs/Students%20With%20Special%20Needs/Spec%20Ed%20Plan%202019%20Final.pdf
Winzer, M. A. (2008). Children with exceptionalities in Canadian classrooms. Pearson Prentice Hall.
Wise, N. (2012). Access to special education for exceptional students in French immersion programs: An equity issue. Canadian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 14(1), 177–193. https://journals.lib.unb.ca/index.php/CJAL/article/view/19873
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2022 Lindsey Jaber, Brittany Guenot
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
By virtue of their publication in this open access journal, articles are free to use with proper attribution (to both the author(s) and the Journal of Teaching and Learning) for educational and other non-commercial uses.