Abstract
Literature suggests that introducing IT tools into urban design practice provokes a new paradigm that involves new modes of thinking that would increase the quality of the design and decision-making process. However, their effective usage in mainstream practice in US Planning departments lags due to technical, financial, social, and institutional constraints. This mixed-method research pursued in three phases in San Diego uses IT tools to support its planning for growth and design control. The research objective is twofold: to investigate how urban designers use IT tools at various phases and to assess the impact of their usage on the design process. The empirical results were compared to the theoretical propositions to highlight the areas and the extent to what the IT tools’ usage has influenced the design process. The results demonstrated that the impact of IT tools usage correlates with several procedural and substantive factors influenced by the tools' capabilities, the designer's skills in their usage, and the choice of the design methodology. The results did not provide clear evidence that a paradigmatic shift in mainstream practice seems to exist. They suggest a computational methodology that aligns and connects new tools with their methods of usage through new concepts and modes of thinking and communication. This shift yet implies a shift in urban design pedagogy, skillset, knowledge, and training.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
AbdulGhani, M. 2012. 3D visualization and GIS as a common platform for planning. Ph.D. Thesis, Deakin University.
Ahmed, F., and S. Sekar. 2015. Using three-dimensional volumetric analysis in everyday urban planning processes. Applied Spatial Analysis and Policy 8 (4): 393–408.
Al-Douri, F. A. S. 2006. Impact of utilizing three-dimensional digital urban models on the design content of urban design plans in United States cities. Ph.D. Dissertation, Texas A&M University.
Al-Douri, F. 2010. The impact of 3D modeling function usage on the design content of urban design plans in US cities. Environment and Planning b: Planning and Design. 37 (1): 75–89. https://doi.org/10.1068/b35055.
Al-Douri, F. 2013. Assessment of the methods and extents of the usage of urban modeling in urban design practice in US cities. Environment and Planning b: Planning and Design. 40 (3): 523–549. https://doi.org/10.1068/b38048.
Al-Kodmany, K. 2002. Visualization tools and methods in community planning: From freehand sketches to virtual reality. Journal of Planning Literature 17: 189–211.
Alonso, L., Y. Zhang, A. Grignard, A. Noyman, Y. Sakai, M. ElKatsha, R. Doorley, and K. Larson. 2018. Cityscope: A data-driven interactive simulation tool for urban design use case volpe. In Unifying themes in complex systems IX, ed. A. Morales, C. Gershenson, D. Braha, A. Minai, and Y. Bar-Yam, 253–261. Cham: Springer.
Angelova, I., Y. Song, and S. Kim. 2015. Integrated information system for sustainable urban regeneration. In: Proceedings REAL CORP 2015, 361–369. Tagungsband, 5–7 May 2015, Ghent, Belgium
Appleton, K., and A. Lovett. 2005. GIS-based visualization of development proposals: Reactions from planning and related professionals. Computers, Environment and Urban Systems 29 (3): 321–339.
Asami, Y. 2017. Planning support models in an era of shrinking population: recent planning trends and research. In The virtual and the real in planning and urban design: Perspectives, practices, and applications, ed. C. Yamu, A. Poplin, O. Devisch, and G. De Roo. New York: Routledge.
Batty, M. 2007. Planning support systems: Progress, predictions, and speculations in the shape of things to come, WP122. London: Centre of Advanced Spatial Analysis, University College London.
Batty, M., M. Dodge, B. Jiang, and A. Smith. 1998. GIS and urban design, WP3. London: Centre of Advanced Spatial Analysis, University College London.
Batty, M., and A. Hudson-smith. 2014. Visual analytics for urban design, WP197. London: Centre of Advanced Spatial Analysis, University College London.
Behmanesh, H., and A. Brown. 2019. Classification and review of software applications in the context of urban design processes. In Intelligent & Informed, Proceedings of the 24th International Conference of the Association for Computer-Aided Architectural Design Research in Asia (CAADRIA) 2019, Vol. 2, pp. 211–220.
Besserud, K., and T. Hussey. 2011. Urban design, urban simulation, and the need for computational tools. International Business Machines Journal of Research and Development 55: 21–217. https://doi.org/10.1147/JRD.2010.2097091.
Billger, M., L. Thuvander, and B. Wästberg. 2016. In search of visualization challenges: The development and implementation of visualization tools for supporting dialogue in urban planning processes. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 44 (6): 1012–1035.
Bosselmann, P, 2008 Urban Transformation: Understanding City Design and Form (Island Press, Washington, DC).
Boyko, C., R. Cooper, C. Davey, and A. Wootton. 2006. Addressing sustainability early in the urban design process. Management of Environmental Quality: An International Journal. 17 (6): 689–706.
Brković, M. 2009. Digital realm: Implications on urban development and planning. Spatium 17–18: 13–20.
Çalişkan, O. 2016. How urban designers perform: An international perspective on actual practice. METU Journal of the Faculty of Architecture 32 (1): 229–259.
Carmona, M., J. Punter, and D. Chapman. 2002. From design policy to design quality. London: Royal Town Planning Institute (RTPI).
Carmona, M., S. Tiesdell, T. Heath, and T. Oc. 2010. Public places-urban spaces; The dimensions of urban design. New York: Architectural Press.
Center City Development Corporation (CCDC) (2006) San Diego Downtown Community Plan: Rising on the Pacific, retrieved from URL: http://www.ccdc.com/images/stories/downloads/planning/plans/sdcp-all.pdf
Chapin, T. 2002. Beyond the entrepreneurial city: Municipal capitalism in San Diego. Journal of Urban Affairs 24 (5): 565–581. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9906.00144.
Chiu, M. L. (2002). An organizational view of design communication in design collaboration. Design studies, 23(2), 187–210.
Cooper, R., and C. Boyko. 2010. How to design a city in five steps: Exploring VivaCity2020’s process and tools for urban design decision making? Journal of Urbanism: International Research on Placemaking and Urban Sustainability 3 (3): 253–273.
Cullingworth, J., and R. Caves. 2009. Planning in the USA: Policies, issues, and processes, 3rd ed. New York: Routledge.
Cvetinovic, M., and J. Bolay. 2013. How to technologize urban planning procedures in order to boost urban development in Proceedings of the 2nd International Science Conference Regional Development, Spatial Planning and Strategic Governance, RESPAG 2013, May 22–25, Belgrade, Serbia.
Derix, C. 2012. Digital masterplanning: Computing urban design. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers-Urban Design and Planning 165 (4): 203–217.
Derix, C., A. Gamlesæter, P. Miranda, L. Helme, and K. Kropf. 2012. Simulation heuristics for urban design. In Digital urban modeling and simulation, 159–180. Berlin: Springer.
Dionisio, R.D.J., M. Schindler, and S. Kingham. 2020. Tools for sustainable change: How spatial decision-support tools support transformative urban regeneration. International Journal of E-Planning Research (IJEPR) 9 (2): 21–42.
Drummond, W., and S. French. 2008. The future of GIS in planning: Converging technologies and diverging interests. Journal of the American Planning Association. 74 (2): 161–174.
Dyett & Bhatia (undated) San Diego Downtown. http://www.dyettandbhatia.com/sandiego_ud.htm
Erie, S., V. Kogan, and S.A. MacKenzie. 2010. Redevelopment, San Diego style: The limits of public–private partnerships. Urban Affairs Review 45 (5): 644–678.
Faliu, B., A. Siarheyeva, R. Lou, and F. Merienne. 2018. Design and prototyping of an interactive virtual environment to foster citizen participation and creativity in urban design. In Advances in information systems development, 55–78. Cham: Springer.
Farthing, S. 2016. Research design in urban planning: A student’s guide. Los Angeles: Sage Publications.
Fraser, M., and H. Bjornsson. 2004. Real-time digital modeling in design education and practice. Urban Design International. 9: 187–196.
Friend, A., and J. Hickling. 2005. Planning under pressure: The strategic choice approach, 3rd ed. Oxford: Pergamon.
Fulton, W., and P. Shigley. 2005. Guide to California planning, 3rd ed. Point Arena: Solano Press.
Hammerlinck, D. 2011. Planning Support Technology Implementation by Local Governments in the US Mountain West. Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Geography, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, US.
Hamza, N., and M. Abdelwahab. 2017. Realizing sensory urban environments; Decoding synthetic realities with urban performance simulation. In The virtual and the real in planning and urban design: Perspectives, practices, and applications, ed. C. Yamu, A. Poplin, O. Devisch, and G. De Roo. New York: Routledge.
Harris, B. 1999. Computing in planning: professional and institutional requirements. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, 26(3), 321–331.
Hemmersam, P., N. Martin, E. Westvang, J. Aspen, and A. Morrison. 2015. Exploring urban data visualization and public participation in planning. Journal of Urban Technology. 22 (4): 45–64.
Hillier, W., and A. Leaman. 1974. How is design possible. Journal of Architectural Research 3: 4–11.
Horelli, L., J. Saad-Sulonen, S. Wallin, and A. Botero. 2015. When self-organization intersects with urban planning: Two cases from Helsinki. Planning Practice & Research 30 (3): 286–302. https://doi.org/10.1080/02697459.2015.1052941.
Hollander, Justin B. 2012. Intelligent participation: Engaging citizens through a framework of multiple intelligences. Community Development 43 (3): 346–360. https://doi.org/10.1080/15575330.2011.621086.
Jutraž, A., and J. Le Moine. 2016. Breaking out: New freedoms in urban (re)design work by adding immersive environments. International Journal of Architectural Computing 14 (2): 103–118.
Jutraz, A., and T. Zupancic. 2015. Virtual worlds as support tools for public engagement in urban design. In Planning support systems and smart cities, ed. S. Geertman, J. Ferreira, R. Goodspeed, and J. Stillwell, 391–408. Cham: Springer.
Kahila-Tani, M., A. Broberg, M. Kyttä, and T. Tyger. 2016. Let the citizens map-public participation GIS as a planning support system in the Helsinki master plan process. Planning Practice & Research. 31 (2): 195–214.
Klosterman, R. E. (1997). Planning support systems: a new perspective on computer-aided planning. Journal of Planning education and research, 17(1), 45–54.
Kunze, A., R. Burkhard, S. Gebhardt, and B. Tuncer. 2012. Visualization and decision support tools in urban planning. In Digital urban modeling and simulation, 279–298. Berlin: Springer.
Lehmann, S. 2006. Towards a sustainable city centre: Integrating ecologically sustainable development (ESD) principles into urban renewal. Journal of Green Building 1 (3): 83–104.
Lewis, J., J. Casello, and M. Groulx. 2012. Effective environmental visualization for urban planning and design: Interdisciplinary reflections on a rapidly evolving technology. Journal of Urban Technology 19 (3): 85–106.
Lim, R., N. Laura, and C. Jon. 2016. Embracing the conceptual shift on new ways of experiencing the city and learning urban design: Pedagogical methods and digital technologies. Journal of Urban Design 21 (5): 638–660.
Lin, T., H. Lin, and M. Hu. 2015. Three-dimensional visibility analysis and visual quality computation for urban open spaces aided by Google SketchUp and WebGIS. Environment and Planning b: Urban Analytics and City Science. 44 (4): 618–646.
Linovski, O., and A. Loukaitou-Sideris. 2013. Evolution of urban design plans in the United States and Canada: What do the plans tell us about urban design practice? Journal of Planning Education and Research 33 (1): 66–82.
Loukaitou-Sideris, A. 2012. Addressing the challenges of urban landscapes: Normative goals for urban design. Journal of Urban Design 17 (4): 467–484.
Marsall, L. 2015. Smarter urban planning through a citizen-based approach: The smart urban planning method. Doctoral Thesis in Technology, University of Girona, Spain
McGrath B, 2008 Digital Modeling for Urban Design (John Wiley, Chichester, Sussex).
Metze, T. 2020. Visualization in environmental policy and planning: A systematic review and research agenda. Journal of Environmental Policy & Planning 22 (5): 745–760. https://doi.org/10.1080/1523908X.2020.1798751.
Münster, S., C. Georgi, K. Heijne, K. Klamert, J. Noennig, M. Pump, and H. Van der Meer. 2017. How to involve inhabitants in urban design planning by using digital tools? An overview on a state of the art, key challenges, and promising approaches. In 21st International conference on knowledge-based an intelligent information and engineering systems, KES2017, Procedia computer science, ed. C. Zanni-Merk, C. Frydman, C. Toro, Y. Hicks, R. Howlett, and L. Jain, 2391–2405. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Neto, P. 2006. Public perception in contemporary Portugal: The digital representation of space. Journal of Urban Design 11 (3): 347–366.
Peters, B., and T. Peters. 2018. Computing the environment: Digital design tools for simulation and visualization of sustainable architecture. Chichester: Wiley.
Potts, R. 2020. Is a new “planning 3.0” paradigm emerging? Exploring the relationship between digital technologies and planning theory and practice. Planning Theory & Practice 21 (2): 272–289. https://doi.org/10.1080/14649357.2020.1748699.
Punter, J. 1999. Design guidelines in American cities: A review of design policies and guidance in five west coast cities. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press.
Riggs, W. 2016. Mobile responsive websites and local planning departments in the US: Opportunities for the future. Environment and Planning b: Urban Analytics and City Science 44 (5): 947–963.
Riggs, W., and K. Gordon. 2015. How is mobile technology changing city planning? Developing a taxonomy for the future. Environment and Planning b: Urban Analytics and City Science 44 (1): 100–119. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265813515610337.
Ryan, R. 2007. Enhancing 3D models with urban information: A case study involving local authorities and property professionals in New Zealand: Quantifying the Benefit of 3D over Alternative 2D systems, Master of Building Science Thesis, Victoria University Wellington. http://researcharchive.vuw.ac.nz/handle/10063/1162
Saad-Sulonen, J. 2013. Multiple participations. In New approaches to urban planning, insights from participatory communities, ed. L. Horelli. Helsinki: Aalto University.
Schindler, M., and R. Dionisio. 2021. A framework to assess impacts of path dependence on urban planning outcomes, induced through the use of decision-support tools. Cities 115: 103256. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2021.103256.
Schindler, M., R. Dionisio, and S. Kingham. 2020. Challenges of spatial decision-support tools in urban planning: Lessons from New Zealand’s cities. Journal of Urban Planning and Development 146 (2): 04020012. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)UP.1943-5444.0000575.
Shen, Z., and M. Kawakami. 2010. An online visualization tool for Internet-based local townscape design. Computers, Environment, and Urban Systems 34: 104–116.
Shen, Z., Z. Lei, X. Li, and K. Sugihara. 2013. Design coordination regarding urban design guidelines using Google Earth. International Review for Spatial Planning and Sustainable Development 1 (3): 53–68.
Simpson, D. 2005. Use of Web technology by US planning agencies: Results from a national benchmark survey. Washington: ICMA Press.
Skaaland, E., and K. Pitera. 2021. Investigating the use of visualization to improve public participation in infrastructure projects: How are digital approaches used and what value do they bring? Urban, Planning and Transport Research. https://doi.org/10.1080/21650020.2021.1887757.
Slotterback, C. 2011. Planners’ perspectives on using technology in participatory processes. Environment and Planning b: Planning and Design 38 (3): 468–485.
Slotterback, C., and J. Hourdos. 2009. Technology in planning and participatory processes: Identifying new synergies through real world application. Minneapolis: Hubert Humphrey Institute of Public Affairs, University of Minnesota.
Souza, L., and C. Bueno. 2022. City information modelling as a support decision tool for planning and management of cities: A systematic literature review and bibliometric analysis. Building and Environment 207: 108403. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2021.108403.
Stojanovski, T., J. Partanen, I. Samuels, P. Sanders, and C. Peters. 2020. City information modelling (CIM) and digitizing urban design practices. Built Environment 46 (4): 637–646.
Tobias, S., T. Buser, and M. Buchecker. 2016. Does real-time visualization support local stakeholders in developing landscape visions? Environment and Planning b: Planning and Design 43 (1): 184–197.
Velibeyoğlu, K. 2004. Institutional Use of Information Technologies in City Planning Agencies: Implications from Turkish Metropolitan Municipalities. Ph.D. Dissertation, Izmir Institute of Technology, Izmir, Turkey
Walin, S., J. Saad-Sulonen, M. Amati, and Horelli. 2012. Exploring E-planning practices in different contexts. International Journal of E-Planning Research 1 (3): 17–39. https://doi.org/10.4018/ijepr.2012070102.
Wergles, N., and A. Muhar. 2009. The role of computer visualization in the communication of urban design: A comparison of viewer responses to visualization versus on-site visits. Landscape and Urban Planning. 91: 171–182.
Williamson, W., and B. Parolin. 2012. Review of web-based communications for town planning in local government. Journal of Urban Technology 19 (1): 43–63. https://doi.org/10.1080/10630732.2012.626702.
Wilson, L., J. Danforth, C. C. Davila. 2019. How to generate a thousand master plans: A framework for computational urban design. In: Proceedings of the symposium on simulation for architecture and urban design (SimAUD), Atlanta, GA, USA, 7–9 April, 113–120. San Diego, CA: The Society for Modeling and Simulation International.
Yamu, C., A. Poplin, O. Devisch, and G. De Roo, eds. 2017. The virtual and the real in planning and urban design: Perspectives, practices, and applications. New York: Routledge.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank several anonymous reviewers for comments and suggestions for improvements to this paper. The author would like to gratefully acknowledge the financial support of the American Planning Association (APA) and the University of Nevada, Las Vegas (UNLV), and the administrative support provided by Professor Dr. Taha Imeci, Dean of the Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, International University of Sarajevo (IUS).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Al-Douri, F.A. How Information and Communication Tools (ICT) affect the processes and decision-making in professional urban design practice?. Urban Des Int (2022). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41289-022-00196-8
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/s41289-022-00196-8