What is sharing economy and collaborative consumption?

In international entrepreneurship, the sharing economy and CC-based systems are emerging topics because of their fast developing digital platforms, consumption patterns, heightened consumer demand, and “forced entrepreneurs” (see: Belk 2010; Benjaafar et al. 2019; Cui and Davis 2022; The Economist 2010, 2019, 2022a, b; Hacamo and Kleiner 2022, p. 49; Lamberton and Rose 2012; Parente et al. 2018; The World Bank 2016). Billions of dollars of new businesses and entities were added to the sharing economy that aims at bringing corporate efficiencies and consumer convenience. New literature and interdisciplinary investigations validate these arguments because of fast emerging firms and their unique business models in the sharing economy and CC (see: Ahsan 2020; Costello and Reczek 2020; Hallem et al. 2020; Luo et al. 2021; Richter et al. 2017; Roos and Hahn 2019; Tran et al. 2022).

Interest in the sharing economy was further heightened because of growth opportunities, new markets, digital disruptions, and Covid-19–related changes (see Chandrasekaran et al. 2022; Chang and Sokol 2022; Chowdhury and Audretsch 2021; Etemad 2019a,b, 2021a,b). The sharing economy and CC-based systems remain to be distinct as well as intertwined because of consumers’ changing lifestyles and consumption patterns (Kim and Jin 2020; Möhlmann 2015; Viglia 2020). Related arguments that corroborate this discussion were supported by Albinsson and Perera (2012), Apte and Davis (2019), Aspara and Wittkowski, (2019), and Benoit et al. (2017). Additional investigations include Constantiou et al. (2017), Cusumano et al. (2019), Dellaert (2019), and Muñoz and Cohen (2019).

Collaborative consumption encompasses three distinct systems in the value chain: “product service, redistribution markets, and collaborative lifestyles” (Lazarus 2011, p. 2). The areas of the sharing economy and CC are particularly important in North America and Western Europe because of changing consumption patterns and lifestyles. The major sharing and CC sites include Airbnb, Uber, CouchSurfing, Flexicar, Freecycle, HomeExchange, NetJets, OhSoWe, and Shared Earth. Other firms are JustShareIt, Trust Cloud, WhipCar, Zaarly, Ziilch, Zilok, ZimRides, and Zipcar (for a full list of firms, see Table 2). The major functions of the sharing economy and CC models create marketplaces where products, services, ideas, and expertise can be collectively shared, exchanged, and consumed.

Interestingly these areas revolve around a new “socioeconomic movement” where entrepreneurial firms and participants are the same but their business models and corporate strategies take new shapes and purchasing (Lazarus 2011, p. 1; Leire and Mont 2010). “Platform ecosystems” (Kretschmer et al. 2022, p. 405) and “platformization of brands” (Wichmann et al. 2022, p. 109) are equally important in the sharing process that create unique CC models, collaboration, and proprietary space. Higher prices, complex value chains, and new entrepreneurial opportunities are behind this fast-growing phenomenon of sharing economy and CC-based activities as well (The Economist 2010, 2019, 2020, 2022a,b; Park and Armstrong 2017; Sacks 2011). As expected, “reciprocity” remains to be one of the main factors in the sharing economy’s diverse ecosystems and business models (Proserpio et al. 2018, p. 371) (see Fig. 1 and Table 2). At the same time, sharing and CC-based models and digital systems continue to disrupt the mainstream business world and their operations (see de Oliveira and Tello-Gamarra 2020; Eckhardt et al. 2019; Filippas 2020; Hur et al. 2020). These activities lead to “collaborative lifestyles,” sharing, and consumer exchanges in consumption (Botsman and Rogers 2010b, p. 30; Moraes et al. 2012; Richter et al. 2017; Viglia 2020).

Fig. 1
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Collaborative consumption and sharing systems: conceptual issues, types, and flaws. Source: Albinsson and Perera (2012), Apte and Davis (2019), Botsman and Rogers (2010a,b), Christakis and Fowler (2011), Costello and Reczek (2020), Dellaert (2019), The Economist (2010, 2019, 2022a,b), Gansky (2010), Gerwe and Silva (2020), Guyader and Piscicelli (2019), Hur et al. (2020), Johnson and Ambrose (2009), Lamberton and Rose (2012), Lazarus (2011), Muñoz and Cohen (2019), Sacks (2011), Zervas et al. (2017)

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History reveals that the sharing economy and CC-based systems are not new terms and have been around for hundreds of years. Of course because of the advent of social media, real-time technologies, and emerging digital platforms, sharing and CC became more prevalent in those sectors and industries where prices and quality matter to consumers and industrial markets (Botsman and Rogers 2010a,b; Gansky 2010). “Socially responsible consumption” (Ertz 2018, p. 392), cause-related marketing, and social issues (Robinson et al. 2012) also complement the process of today’s sharing economy and CC-based systems in global markets. Companies capitalize on the sharing economy and CC to reap benefits from those changing segments that witness heightened consumption and seek “de-ownership” strategies (see Choi and He 2019; Fraanje and Spaargaren 2019; Jiang and Tian 2018; Lindblom and Lindblom 2017, p. 431).

The sharing economy and CC-related activities are constantly taking new forms and shapes and will continue to create innovative business models, digital marketplaces, and entrepreneurial opportunities (see Berg and Johnston 2019; Hallem et al. 2020; Kim and Jin 2020; Li et al. 2020; Möhlmann 2015; Roos and Hahn 2019) (see Table 2). This is a classic example of international entrepreneurship and its growth opportunities and risk-taking activities. The major objective of a typical CC-based system aims at sharing and cooperation in consumer and industrial products (Querbes 2018; Stafford 2016; Standing et al. 2019). In many countries, social and economic sharing practices have been around in the areas of daily life. Collaborative consumption encompasses three distinct systems in the value chain: “product service, redistribution markets, and collaborative lifestyles” (Lazarus 2011, p. 2).

There were many books and seminal works published on the sharing economy and CC-based systems as well that cover a wide array of useful topics and relevant investigations. These encompass What is Mine is Yours (Botsman and Rogers 2010a), The Mesh (Gansky 2010), Connected (Christakis and Fowler 2011), The Long Tail (Anderson 2006), Linked (Barbasi 2003), etc. In a well-acclaimed study (What is Mine is Yours), Botsman and Rogers (2010a, pp. xv-xvi) observe:

Every day people are using collaborative consumption – traditional

sharing, bartering, lending, trading, renting, gifting, and swapping,

redefined through technology and peer communities. Collaborative

consumption is enabling people to realize the enormous benefits of

access to products and services over ownership, and at the same

time save money, space, and time; ----social networks, smart grids,

and real time technologies are also making it possible to leapfrog

over outdated modes of hyper-consumption and create innovative

system based on shared usage such as bike or car sharing.

To continue the discussion of sharing, CC, and global entrepreneurial opportunities, the paper is structured as follows: Section 1 provides introduction and importance of the sharing economy and CC. Section 2 looks at the conceptual issues and literature review. Section 3 provides data collection and methodology. The results and discussion are provided in Section 4. The last section provides implications and concluding comments. We believe that the topic of the sharing economy, CC-based systems and their changing strategic issues and entrepreneurial opportunities remain timely in global business and digital markets.

Conceptual issues and literature review

Conceptual issues

Table 1 provides a literature chart which includes sharing- and CC-related investigations and analysis that carry interdisciplinary content and multifaceted topics. Behind the sharing economy and CC-related activities, there are many elements and factors that complement this process. These activities include collective action, common pool resources (CPR), new consumption communities (NCCs), virtual communities, and social networks (see Albinsson and Perera 2012; Ostrom 2003; Ray and Bhattacharya 2011; Schlager 2002; Siegel 2009).

Table 1 Selected interdisciplinary literature: sharing economy and collaborative consumption
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Businesses often prefer corporate- and industry-specific changes because of new technologies, sustainability, redundant systems, and scarcity of financial resources (see: Calo and Rosenblat 2017; Curtis and Mont 2020; Guyader and Piscicelli 2019; Muñoz and Cohen 2019; Porter and Kramer 2011). Consumption and corporate-specific activities may aim at creating efficiencies, growth, and low prices (Scaraboto 2015; Scaraboto and Figueiredo 2021). In the last 10 years, the sharing economy and CC areas have become inherently distinct and powerful creating hundreds of new firms, businesses, and jobs in global business that help connect industries, interdependent markets, and Internet of technology (IoT)–related areas (see Novak and Hoffman 2019; Paik et al. 2018; Porter and Heppelmann 2014, 2015; Reischauer and Mair 2018). Other studies that support these arguments include Siggelkow and Terwiesch (2019), Uzunca et al. (2018), Zervas et al. (2017), and Zvolska et al. (2019).

The mainstream sharing economy and CC-based systems come in three forms: (1) single product sharing based on a fee; (2) sharing through large-scale marketplaces; and (3) group-based sharing of products and services that aim at community involvement (Albinsson and Perera 2012). A mainstream typology of sharing models encompasses four areas: “public goods sharing” (Interstate Highway system in the USA, public facilities, opensource systems, World Wide Web, etc.), “access/club goods sharing” (industry-specific clubs and networks), “open commercial goods sharing” (bike/car sharing, fractional ownership-based models), and “closed commercial goods sharing” (airlines’ frequent flyer mile plans, cooperatives, mobile phone sharing plans, etc.) (Lamberton and Rose 2012, pp. 110–111) (see Fig. 2). Interestingly the bike-sharing system was introduced in Amsterdam in the sixties and provided benefits to the city and its residents. Other countries and cities also followed the main model with modifications and additional changes.

Fig. 2
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Selected evaluation of 55 sharing and collaborative consumption firms and formats: sharing vs. access issues (2011–2020). Notes: (a). Firms/Web sites evaluated: 1. Airbnb, 2. Airtasker, 3. Bag Borrow or Steal, 4. Bookcrossing, 5. BookMooch, 6. Collaborative Fund, 7. CouchSurfing, 8. Divvy, 9. EatWith, 10. Flexicar, 11. Freecycle, 12. GoGet, 13. GuestToGuest, 14. HomeAway, 15. HomeExchange, 16. Oasis, 17. Jayride, 18. JustShareIt, 19. Kodesk, 20. Neighbor, 21. LiquidSpace, 22. Livop, 23. Munchery, 24. Neighborgoods, 25. Netflix, 26. NetJets, 27. OhSoWe, 28. OpenShed, 29. Park Circa, 30. RentNRoll, 31. Rover, 32. Rent My Car, 33. RVshare, 34. Shared Earth, 35. Share Some Sugar, 36. Spacer. 37. Skyara, 38. SpotHero, 39. Sittercity, 40. Tamyca, 41. TaskRabbit, 42. 3DHubs, 43. ThredUP, 44. Tripping, 45. Trust Cloud, 46. Uber, 47. Vayable, 48. VRBO, 49. Wedding DressMarket, 50. WhipCar, 51. Zaarly, 52. Ziilch, 53. Zilok, 54. ZimRides, 55. Zipcar. (b). Firms were selected because of their unique business models based on sharing and access to products and services

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This classification helps us understand sharing and CC-based business models and exchanges between companies, online marketplaces, and consumers. Our goal in the paper is to concentrate on open commercial goods systems which revolve around sharing of goods and services by providing access to products and digital platforms (see Fig. 2). From corporate and entrepreneurship perspectives, CC can take the forms of sharing, renting, buying, and taking ownership. Strategic issues that directly or indirectly become part of the sharing process and CC-based activities encompass value chains, corporate growth, market profile, positioning, power of consumers, and governance mechanism.

Selected literature

Published literature on the sharing economy and CC-related business models remain distinctly interdisciplinary and multifaceted (see Table 1). In recent years, the literature has added timely studies that set the pace for entrepreneurial opportunities and future research. Major empirical studies include “commercial sharing system” (Lamberton and Rose 2012, p. 109), “social influence of brand community” (Algesheimer et al. 2005, p. 19), and “consumer file sharing” (Hennig-Thurau et al. 2007, p. 1). Other investigations include opensource platforms, “social sharing of information goods” (Galbreth et al. 2012, p. 603), and sharing in international markets (Kozlenkova et al. 2021). These works remain well grounded in empirical investigations that deliver a meaningful value added to the literature. Other useful studies and interdisciplinary research that shed light on sharing and CC-related business models were investigated by Albinsson and Perera (2012), Belk (2010), Benkler (2004), and Botsman and Rogers (2010b). Additional investigations are equally valuable and encompass Firnkorn and Müller (2011), Loose et al. (2006), McGuire (1991), and Truffer (2003).

From academic and practitioners’ perspectives, investigations that popularized and replicated sharing- and CC-based systems encompass Barbasi (2003), Botsman and Rogers (2010a,b), Gansky (2010), Lee (2022), Li et al. (2022a, b), Shirkey (2009, 2011), and Porter and Kramer (2011). Related works that bring interdisciplinary and multifaceted character of this discussion and review-based studies include Anderson (2006), Eisenmann et al. (2011), Rojanakit et al. (2022), Surowiecki (2004), and Tapscott and Williams (2010). Overall, the literature remains to be scientific and meaningful regarding its value added, investigations, and interdisciplinary contents (see Table 1). As discussed, the literature of the sharing economy and CC-based consumption truly remains to be interdisciplinary because of discipline-specific philosophies, emerging business models, entrepreneurial initiatives, and consumption patterns. Today’s changing forces of globalization also add a new dimension when dealing with technologies, knowledge-based systems, and market opportunities. Of course, a few areas of globalization are in retreat because of protectionism and trade barriers (Levinson 2020) but will recover in the coming years.

Data collection and methodology

For this paper, we identified sharing- and CC-based firms and organizations in car rentals, property, sharing rides and space, fractional ownerships, sharing experience, renting tools and equipment, parking spaces, consumer durables, and related areas (see Table 2). The study used Web-based secondary data, company Web sites, and surveys and investigated 73 firms and marketplaces from ten sectors that actively use sharing- and CC-based business models worldwide. Online data collection is a useful source of information and has been used by investigators before. We discussed “strategic issues” and “entrepreneurial opportunities” which are listed in Fig. 1. For our literature review, we employed interdisciplinary approach because of the diversity of topic and its rich material and meaningful investigations (see Cheng et al. 2009, 2014; Dunning 1989; Morss et al. 2018; Pieters and Baumgartner 2002).

Table 2 Selected sharing and collaborative consumption firms in global markets: products, benefits, value chain, and strategic growth issues (2022)
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Interdisciplinary research is useful in “cross-functional integration” (Cantwell and Brannen 2011, p. 4) and adds value to multiple topics and academic disciplines (Morss et al. 2018). Interdisciplinary research is also a popular and useful tool that was used in multifaceted studies and academic investigations in social science (Pieters and Baumgartner 2002; Rafols et al. 2012; Siedlok et al. 2015; Weiss 1986). A list of selected sharing and CC-specific firms and marketplaces that created entrepreneurial opportunities in global markets are listed in Table 2. These firms remain to be inherently adventuresome with their distinct business models and digital platforms and continue to grow in the USA and global markets.

Results, discussion, and research agenda

Table 2 and Fig. 2 provide detailed information on 73 sharing and CC-based business entities and marketplaces that sell and share products and services in the USA and global markets. These fast-growing businesses were analyzed within their current operational issues (i.e., Sh, sharing; Rn, renting; By, buying; and Ow, ownership). To understand the issues of sharing-based systems and CC models, it is important to know about those strategic issues that directly/indirectly impact the sharing economy and CC areas. These include value chain (Vc), growth (Gr), market profile (Mp), positioning (Ps), power of consumers (Pc), and governance mechanism (Gm). Selected findings of the paper are as follows:

  1. (1)

    Car rental sharing companies are one of the fastest growing CC-based firms in North America and Europe because of consumer demand, changing lifestyles, pricing issues, and idle capacity of automobiles (over 15 h per day; see Table 2 and Fig. 2). By using product-specific and “differentiation strategies” (Frey et al. 2019, p. 143), car rental companies have capitalized on the sharing economy and CC-based systems regarding targeting consumers and changing lifestyles (see DriveMyCarRentals, Flexicar, Getaround, Livop, RentNRoll, RVshare, Tamyca, WhipCar, and Zipcar).

    The market leader among today’s sharing-based auto rentals remains to be Zipcar that raised millions in its IPO. The basic model of sharing is highly influenced by value chains, corporate growth, consumer loyalty, and niche markets. Problem areas for these companies in CC originate from positioning hurdles, consumer trust, product quality, and governance system. Basically sharing-based car rental companies’ quality and corporate growth is determined by size, location, and reputation. These areas continue to be the main success factor in sharing and CC systems (see Fig. 1).

  2. (2)

    Because of low transaction cost, competition, and new business models, sharing and CC-based models continue to grow in those sectors where companies maintain efficient value chains and infrastructure. Table 2 provides a list of firms and marketplaces that capitalize on social networks and real time technologies. In 2011, a well-known property rent/sharing firm Airbnb’s platform was valued at $1.3 billion because of its successful entrepreneurial model, fast growth, and established customer networks. In 2022, the same firm amassed massive resources and a network of properties worldwide and its market capitalization stood at $100 billion. Airbnb maintains an efficient network of properties for renting with an aggressive growth model and entrepreneurial platform. It is classic example in international entrepreneurship that continues to defy analysts and industry experts.

  3. (3)

    Most of the CC-based business models have been created because of consumers’ economic hardship, quality problems, and financial constraints (Borowiak and Ji 2019; Hagiu and Wright 2019; Jiang and Tian 2018). Other reasons are the rise of social media, ethical marketing, and problems of overconsumption in the society. In the presence of Covid-19 crisis, sharing and CC-based platforms continue to expand in the USA and global markets because of consumer hardship, job losses, and financial constraints. Some of the firms in the sharing business and CC are growing because of their product offerings that help consumers save money and time.

  4. (4)

    Product-related luxury attributes and renting expensive brands are another growth factor behind sharing-based systems and CC. Companies such as Bag Borrow or Steal and NetJets are the results of this behavior where consumers show reluctance to spend exorbitant amount of money. More and more brand conscious consumers share luxury goods and rent on weekly/monthly basis. Fractional ownership in expensive products is another segment where value chains have been simplified to increase demand and consumer trust. Table 3 provides a list of companies that especially cater to these fast-growing segments that rely on sharing rather than buying.

  5. (5)

    In mass-scale sharing and CC-based systems, convenience and profitable segments go side-by-side. Sharing of products and services are a major catalyst behind these activities as well (Kumar et al. 2018; Lutz and Newlands 2018). Figure 2 compares and contrasts 55 firms and their sharing and access models. This list includes a multitude of firms that created entrepreneurial opportunities in the global sharing economy and online markets and continue to thrive because of changing lifestyles and consumer demand (Cho et al. 2019). Interestingly car rental companies rank high on sharing because of members’ commitment and loyalty to CC systems. At the same time, a handful of entrepreneurial ventures have failed because of ill planning, inexperienced management, and meager financial resources (Chasin et al. 2018).

  6. (6)

    Continuous innovative capacity regarding growth and expansion is limited in many sharing systems. “Hybrid business models” (Reuter 2021, p. 603), imitation, and “follow the leader” growth strategies are pursued by those firms that carry limited experience, financial clout, and market coverage. The car rental sharing system has witnessed the arrival of local and small companies in the USA and global markets because of consumer demand, convenience, and availability of new apps, and technologies. At the same time, company-specific growth is available to those firms that maintain efficient value chains, financial prowess, and logistical infrastructure. Zipcar stands out in this category although the firm has encountered problems in customer service, quality control, and shortage of car models.

  7. (7)

    Dealing with complex value chains, positioning, and market entry issues are major hurdles faced by sharing-based systems (see Fig. 2). For example, real estate, land, and house exchange sites remain limited in their growth and expansion because of limited entrepreneurial initiatives, customer trust, locations, and regulatory issues. These areas are particularly cumbersome where checks and balances are limited and companies lack a proper infrastructure. For these reasons, sharing and entrepreneurial opportunities remain to be narrow and are constrained by local laws and regulatory standards.

  8. (8)

    Company-specific alliances and large-scale cooperation in the sharing economy and CC are limited because of limited infrastructure and technology standards. Establishing a large-scale CC-based system is difficult in today’s business world. Starting a small sharing-based system carries low cost but does not yield growth opportunities because of weaker positioning and limited infrastructure. Consumer attachment is inherently strong in those firms that excel in well-tested apps, real-time technologies, social media coverage, and efficient infrastructure.

  9. (9)

    In global markets and emerging sectors of international entrepreneurship, regulatory areas remain disruptive because of vague rules and fuzzy standards. Many sharing economy firms and CC-based models were started as small enterprises and carried limited infrastructure and facilities. Most of the sharing systems and CC-based firms remain local and have a difficult time expanding because of limited financial resources and infrastructure. Findings in Table 2 and Fig. 2 validate this discussion and arguments. At the same time, some of the sharing economy-based firms have become major brands because of successful market coverage and planning (see Airbnb, Uber, Lyft, Ola, Zipcar, etc.). Consumers’ attachment to CC and sharing systems is distinctly evident in the forms of heightened customer demand and platform-related consumption. This is a unique entrepreneurial phenomenon that transcends across national borders. Sustainability and environmental issues are equally important in this debate and do complement a wide array of areas and business sectors.

Table 3 Research issues, criteria/settings, and future research agenda in the areas of sharing economy, collaborative consumption, and entrepreneurial opportunities
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Most of the sharing and CC initiatives were found to be haphazard in their introduction and early stages of life cycles. This could be the result of untested business models, inexperienced management, and limited markets. These areas definitely provide useful lessons and practical implications. Entrepreneurs and entrepreneurial firms in international entrepreneurship need to pay attention to CC and its sharing-based systems that at present continue to grow in the USA and global markets (see Table 2 and Fig. 2).

Research agenda

Currently, the topics of sharing economy and CC-based systems are going through major structural changes worldwide because of heightened consumer demand, new technologies, and growth (Cusumano et al. 2019). For this reason, in Table 3, we briefly provide research issues, criteria, and future research agenda which are as follows:

  1. (A)

    For fast-growing entrepreneurial firms, company-specific activities are important regarding managing brands and corporate expansion. The same applies to the sharing economy and CC where corporate growth and expansion are critical regarding firms’ survival. Because of environmental issues and consumer awareness, ethical and green initiatives remain important in the sharing process as well (Gonzalez-Padron 2017; Grinevich et al. 2019). Fast growing sharing systems continue to capitalize on ethical activities and societal welfare. A case in point is the “Uber effect” which continues to bring structural changes in the sharing economy and CC-based business models (see Berger et al. 2018, p. 197; Bradshaw 2019; Brown 2019). Uber’s fast growing business model has encouraged competitors to seek growth beyond their national borders.

  2. (B)

    Issues of trust, consumption, sustainability, and buying habits of consumers (Curtis and Mont 2020; Ko et al. 2022) in different sectors of the sharing economy and CC-based systems continue to take new forms and growth models. Table 2 provides a selected list of firms that remain active when dealing with new markets and growth models. In international entrepreneurship, this is the hallmark of creating new ventures and businesses. Most of today’s sharing economy firms and businesses aim at creating consumer convenience, value chain efficiencies, new opportunities, and economies of scale.

  3. (C)

    Topics such as “commercial sharing systems” (Lamberton and Rose 2012, p. 109), branding issues, fractional ownerships, and “the sharing economy” (Sacks 2011, p. 88) can be valuable research streams regarding conducting interviews, photo essays, and related studies in global markets. These research topics may also be pursued through social media and related digital platforms.

  4. (D)

    Issues of current and future opensource platforms, social capital, and their behavioral characteristics and influences are important research topics because of changing business models and availability of sharing systems (Tóth et al. 2022). Also important are the emergence of “disruptors” and new business models that bring opportunities and problems in the sharing economy (Chang and Sokol 2022). These investigations add a meaningful value to the literature because of new topics and research streams.

  5. (E)

    “Group composition and collective consumption” (McGuire 1991, p. 1391) are major topics in sharing and CC-based systems but have not been investigated within income groups and social networks. These areas can add a good value to the literature if investigated properly.

  6. (F)

    Issues of “brand community” (Algesheimer et al. 2005, p. 19) in CC-related environments such as cars, apartments/homes, tools, and durable goods in multiple countries can be useful research topics because of the diversity of sharing and CC models. Because of mass consumption in developed countries and emerging markets, there are available markets that can provide data and research opportunities.

  7. (G)

    Group activities and “online community participation” (Zhu and Iansiti 2012, p. 394) within sharing and CC-related activities can reveal interesting results because of community-based consumption and entrepreneurial initiatives in social networks and virtual groups.

  8. (H)

    Institutional issues and their impact on CC remain to be diverse and multifaceted (Dellaert 2019). Country-specific institutions and regulatory bodies impact entrepreneurial firms and sharing models. Replicating these studies in multiple business environments and countries can be helpful regarding analyzing institutions and their value chains and corporate expansion.

Implications and concluding comments

There is much to be learned and replicated from the areas of the sharing economy, CC-based systems, and entrepreneurial firms because of changing business models, emerging digital platforms, and heightened consumer demand in global business. The paper’s main contribution is in five areas. First the work looked at CC- and sharing-based marketplaces that create unique business models and digital platforms. Second, we reviewed interdisciplinary literature of the sharing economy and CC-specific studies that relate to international entrepreneurship. Third, the work provided a logical discussion of sharing and CC which we believe can turn into a big industry if supported by consumers and innovative entrepreneurs. Fourth, the paper provided a platform on which CC- and sharing-related investigations can be built and analyzed for future research. Finally, the work investigated 73 sharing and CC-based firms from ten sectors and global marketplaces that introduced unique business models and entrepreneurial ventures.

The findings of this paper validate that the sharing economy and CC-based systems are important areas in international entrepreneurship and find a distinct place in a multitude of research streams and digital platforms (The Economist 2020, 2022a, b; Ko et al. 2022; Li et al. 2022a, b). At times, there are a few credible studies conducted in the business literature that deal with these areas (see Albinsson and Perera 2012; Algesheimer et al. 2005). Other investigations include Belk (2010), Gerwe and Silva (2020), Hennig-Thurau et al. (2007), Lamberton and Rose (2012), Sundararajan (2016), and Zhang et al. (2018). Since corporate growth is a critical area in the literature regarding companies’ expansion and survival (Golder et al. 2012), it will be interesting to gauge how the sharing economy and CC-based organizations and marketplaces handle growth and survival in the coming years because of market disruptions, saturation, and maturity (Bond and Bullock 2019). This will be particularly important in the post-Coronavirus crisis period and may impact sharing platforms and CC-based systems.

Managerial implications of CC- and sharing-based systems and business models are important and can be applied to those areas that deal with consumer sectors such as car rentals, luxury goods, apartments, fractional ownerships, and durable products. We believe that the sharing economy and CC-based systems can become an extension of the mainstream international entrepreneurship literature in the exchange process that deals with growth and new business models. Like any research investigation, this paper also carries some limitation. The present work in its current form is somewhat limited in its data coverage and business sectors although the paper uncovers a useful discussion which is timely and relevant when dealing with today’s sharing models, CC patterns, and entrepreneurial areas (see Kolade et al. 2022; Liu et al. 2022).

The literature and discussion presented in the paper truly reflect today’s changes in international entrepreneurship and global markets that strive to bring new business models and entrepreneurial systems. No wonder sharing models and CC areas are fast emerging in the USA and global business. New ventures and business models continue to thrive because of consumer demand, efficient value chains, and convenience (see Table 2 and Fig. 2). Entrepreneurs, consumers, and researchers need to pay attention to the sharing economy and CC-type of companies that at present are involved in creating entrepreneurial opportunities and niche industries. At the same time, overconsumption and sustainability are equally important that demand additional studies and empirical evidence. As discussed by Belk (2010), The Economist (2010, 2019, 2022a,b), Lamberton and Rose (2012), and others, discussion on sharing and CC is important because of overconsumption, community involvement, and social responsibility (Albinsson and Perera 2012; Roos and Hahn 2019). At the same time, “community participation” (Algesheimer et al. 2010, p. 756) and group-related buying activities can create new entrepreneurial opportunities and company-specific growth.

In the coming years, “traditional ownership-based systems,” “commercial sharing systems” (Lamberton and Rose 2012, p. 109), “the alternative marketplaces” (Albinsson and Perera 2012, p. 303), and “utility theory” (Hennig-Thurau et al. 2007, p. 1) models will require additional investigations because of the complexity of sharing models and CC-based systems. These are particularly important when dealing with global entrepreneurial opportunities and emerging business models. In addition, “social organizations” and “brand communities” (Algesheimer et al. 2005, p. 20), “alternative models of sharing,” and “aggregate extended self” (Belk 2010, pp. 722, 725) will definitely necessitate a major revisit from researchers and practitioners because of changing corporate strategies, social capital, “digital commons,” and new entrepreneurial models (Ossewaarde and Reijers 2017, p. 609; Paik et al. 2018).

Finally, in the coming years, it is possible that sharing economy firms and CC-based marketing systems become major business platforms in their respective categories, industries, and niche sectors in the USA and global markets. These activities are critical when dealing with international entrepreneurship and its fast-developing theories and scholarship. On balance, consumption and consumer-specific activities in sharing create new business models, industrial opportunities, and niche models. These issues and related topics were discussed by Baron (2018), Berg and Johnston (2019), Cramer and Krueger (2016), Cusumano et al. (2019), Dellaert (2019), Gupta et al. (2019), and The Economist (2019, 2020, 2022a,b). As shown in Table 2, hundreds of new sharing ventures and corporate initiatives were created that aimed at niche business sectors. These entities compete and cooperate to create tangible opportunities in international entrepreneurship in global markets. In the long-term, this can be a win–win situation for the sharing economy firms and CC-based systems regarding creating global opportunities, jobs, and above all, demystifying traditional value chains and business models.