Abstract
In this study, we present a new approach to understanding the persistence of nascent entrepreneurs, by examining the role played by context and cognition through the mediation of a self-regulatory mechanism. Drawing on a sample of 316 nascent entrepreneurs from the Panel Study of Entrepreneurial Dynamics (PSED II), we first consider whether entrepreneurial self-efficacy and goal commitment predict persistence in nascent entrepreneurs. We then evaluate the role of perceived institutional support, both formal and informal. Finally, we examine the relationships between cognitive and contextual variables and their impact on entrepreneurial persistence. Our results show that goal commitment has a direct effect on entrepreneurial persistence, while self-efficacy acts indirectly through goal commitment, from which we infer the existence of a self-regulatory mechanism impacting on persistence in nascent entrepreneurs. Among the contextual factors, only informal institutional support presents a direct relationship to persistence, while perceived formal support exerts an indirect influence through cognitive self-regulation. From a practical standpoint, our findings may be useful for institutions that design policies and programmes to foster sustained economic growth through the promotion of entrepreneurship.
Funding source: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación MICIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033
Award Identifier / Grant number: COMPSOS Project _PID2020-117313RB-I00
Funding source: Consejería de Economía, Innovación, Ciencia y Empleo, Junta de Andalucía
Award Identifier / Grant number: SOSTEMPRE Project B-SEJ-682-UGR20
Funding source: Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades
Award Identifier / Grant number: FPU17/03638
Funding source: Universidad de Granada
-
Research funding: This work was supported by Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (COMPSOS Project _PID2020-117313RB-I00), Consejería de Economía, Innovación, Ciencia y Empleo, Junta de Andalucía (SOSTEMPRE Project B-SEJ-682-UGR20), Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades (FPU17/03638), and Universidad de Granada.
Measurement scales
Please tell me if you strongly agree, agree, neither agree nor disagree, disagree, or strongly disagree with whether these statements accurately describe you:
| Entrepreneurial self-efficacy |
| Y6: Overall, my skills and abilities will help me start this new business. |
| Y7: My past experience will be very valuable in starting this new business. |
| Goal commitment |
| Y9: There is no limit as to how long I would give maximum effort to establish this new business. |
| Y10: My personal philosophy is to “do whatever it takes” to establish my own business. |
Now I would like to talk to you about the community in which you now live. Would you say you strongly agree, agree, neither agree nor disagree, disagree, or strongly disagree?
| Formal institutional context |
| P7: State and local governments in your community provide good support for those starting new businesses. |
| P8: Bankers and other investors in your community go out of their way to help new businesses get started. |
| P9: Community groups provide good support for those starting new businesses. |
| Informal institutional context |
| P1: The social norms and culture of the community where you live are highly supportive of success achieved through one’s own personal efforts. |
| P2: The social norms and culture of your community emphasize self-sufficiency, autonomy, and personal initiative. |
| P3: The social norms and culture of your community encourage entrepreneurial risk-taking. |
| P4: The social norms and culture of your community encourage creativity and innovativeness. |
| P5: The social norms and culture of your community emphasize the responsibility that the individual has in managing his or her own life. |
References
Adam, A. F., and A. Fayolle. 2015. “Bridging the Entrepreneurial Intention–Behaviour Gap: The Role of Commitment and Implementation Intention.” International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business 25 (1): 36–54, https://doi.org/10.1504/ijesb.2015.068775.Search in Google Scholar
Adomako, S., A. Danso, M. Uddin, and J. O. Damoah. 2016. “Entrepreneurs’ Optimism, Cognitive Style and Persistence.” International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour & Research 22 (1): 84–108, https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEBR-07-2015-0158.Search in Google Scholar
Aparicio, S., D. Urbano, and D. Audretsch. 2016. “Institutional Factors, Opportunity Entrepreneurship and Economic Growth: Panel Data Evidence.” Technological Forecasting and Social Change 102: 45–61, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2015.04.006.Search in Google Scholar
Aparicio, S., D. Urbano, and P. Stenholm. 2021. “Attracting the Entrepreneurial Potential: A Multilevel Institutional Approach.” Technological Forecasting and Social Change 168: 120748, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2021.120748.Search in Google Scholar
Asante, E. A., B. Danquah, F. Oduro, E. Affum-Osei, M. A. Twumasi, C. Azunu, and C. Li. 2022. “Entrepreneurial Career Persistence of Hybrid Entrepreneurs: The Opposing Moderating Roles of Wage Work-To-Entrepreneurship Enrichment and Entrepreneurship-To-Wage Work Enrichment.” Journal of Vocational Behavior 132: 103660, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2021.103660.Search in Google Scholar
Austin, J. T., and J. B. Vancouver. 1996. “Goal Constructs in Psychology: Structure, Process, and Content.” Psychological Bulletin 120 (3): 338.10.1037/0033-2909.120.3.338Search in Google Scholar
Bandura, A. 1977. “Self-efficacy: Toward a Unifying Theory of Behavioral Change.” Psychological Review 84 (2): 191–215, https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191.Search in Google Scholar
Bandura, A. 1982. “The Assessment and Predictive Generality of Self-Percepts of Efficacy.” Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 13 (3): 195–9.10.1016/0005-7916(82)90004-0Search in Google Scholar
Bandura, A. 1989. “Human Agency in Social Cognitive Theory.” American Psychologist 44 (9): 1175.10.1037/0003-066X.44.9.1175Search in Google Scholar
Baron, R. A. 2004. “The Cognitive Perspective: a Valuable Tool for Answering Entrepreneurship’s Basic “Why” Questions.” Journal of Business Venturing 19 (2): 221–39, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0883-9026(03)00008-9.Search in Google Scholar
Baron, R. A., and R. A. Henry. 2010. “How Entrepreneurs Acquire the Capacity to Excel: Insights from Research on Expert Performance.” Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal 4 (1): 49–65, https://doi.org/10.1002/sej.82.Search in Google Scholar
Bateman, T. S., and B. Barry. 2012. “Masters of the Long Haul: Pursuing Long-Term Work Goals.” Journal of Organizational Behavior 33 (7): 984–1006, https://doi.org/10.1002/job.1778.Search in Google Scholar
Beck, T. 2007. “Financing Constraints of SMEs in Developing Countries: Evidence, Determinants and Solutions.” In KDI 36th Anniversary International Conference, 26–7.Search in Google Scholar
Biru, A., D. Gilbert, and P. Arenius. 2021. “Unhelpful Help: The State of Support Programmes and the Dynamics of Entrepreneurship Ecosystems in Ethiopia.” Entrepreneurship & Regional Development 33 (1–2): 108–30, https://doi.org/10.1080/08985626.2020.1734267.Search in Google Scholar
Blair, C. A., and K. G. Shaver. 2020. “Of Horses and Jockeys: Perceptions by Academic Entrepreneurs.” Entrepreneurship Research Journal 10 (2): 1–21, https://doi.org/10.1515/erj-2019-0011.Search in Google Scholar
Boudreaux, C. J., B. N. Nikolaev, and P. Klein. 2019. “Socio-cognitive Traits and Entrepreneurship: The Moderating Role of Economic Institutions.” Journal of Business Venturing 34 (1): 178–96, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2018.08.003.Search in Google Scholar
Brockner, J., E. T. Higgins, and M. B. Low. 2004. “Regulatory Focus Theory and the Entrepreneurial Process.” Journal of Business Venturing 19 (2): 203–20, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0883-9026(03)00007-7.Search in Google Scholar
Boz Semerci, A. B., and M. Çimen. 2017. “Environmental Incentives of Entrepreneurship: Fuzzy Clustering Approach to OECD Countries.” Journal of Global Entrepreneurship Research 7 (1): 1–19, https://doi.org/10.1186/s40497-017-0085-z.Search in Google Scholar
Busenitz, L. W., C. Gomez, and J. W. Spencer. 2000. “Country Institutional Profiles: Unlocking Entrepreneurial Phenomena.” Academy of Management Journal 43 (5): 994–1003, https://doi.org/10.5465/1556423.Search in Google Scholar
Cardon, M. S., and C. P. Kirk. 2015. “Entrepreneurial Passion as Mediator of the Self-Efficacy to Persistence Relationship.” Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice 39 (5): 1027–50, https://doi.org/10.1111/etap.12089.Search in Google Scholar
Carter, N. M., W. B. Gartner, and P. D. Reynolds. 1996. “Exploring Start-Up Event Sequences.” Journal of Business Venturing 11 (3): 151–66, https://doi.org/10.1016/0883-9026(95)00129-8.Search in Google Scholar
Cavich, J., and R. Chinta. 2021. “Nascent Entrepreneurs, Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy, and the Moderators of Race, Gender, and Government Support.” Entrepreneurship Research Journal 12 (3): 363–89, https://doi.org/10.1515/erj-2020-0542.Search in Google Scholar
Cerqueti, R., C. Lucarelli, N. Marinelli, and A. Micozzi. 2020. “Teams in New Ventures: Gender, Human Capital and Motivation.” International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship 12 (2): 145–71, https://doi.org/10.1108/IJGE-07-2019-0115.Search in Google Scholar
Chadwick, I. C., and J. L. Raver. 2020. “Psychological Resilience and its Downstream Effects for Business Survival in Nascent Entrepreneurship.” Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice 44 (2): 233–55, https://doi.org/10.1177/1042258718801597.Search in Google Scholar
Chen, C. C., P. G. Greene, and A. Crick. 1998. “Does Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy Distinguish Entrepreneurs from Managers?” Journal of Business Venturing 13 (4): 295–316, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0883-9026(97)00029-3.Search in Google Scholar
Chowdhury, F., D. B. Audretsch, and M. Belitski. 2019. “Institutions and Entrepreneurship Quality.” Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice 43 (1): 51–81, https://doi.org/10.1177/1042258718780431.Search in Google Scholar
Davidsson, P. 2012. “Engagement, Persistence, Progress and Success as Theoretically Distinct Aspects of Business Creation Processes.” In Proceedings of the 31st Annual Entrepreneurship Research Conference, 307–21. Babson College, Arthur M. Blank Center for Entrepreneurship.Search in Google Scholar
Davidsson, P., and S. R. Gordon. 2012. “Panel Studies of New Venture Creation: A Methods-Focused Review and Suggestions for Future Research.” Small Business Economics 39 (4): 853–76, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-011-9325-8.Search in Google Scholar
Davidsson, P., and S. R. Gordon. 2016. “Much Ado about Nothing? The Surprising Persistence of Nascent Entrepreneurs through Macroeconomic Crisis.” Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice 40 (4): 915–41, https://doi.org/10.1111/etap.12152.Search in Google Scholar
De Clercq, D., D. S. K. Lim, and C. H. Oh. 2013. “Individual-Level Resources and New Business Activity: The Contingent Role of Institutional Context.” Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice 37 (2): 303–30, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2011.00470.x.Search in Google Scholar
De Clercq, D., T. V. Menzies, M. Diochon, and Y. Gasse. 2009. “Explaining Nascent Entrepreneurs’ Goal Commitment: An Exploratory Study.” Journal of Small Business and Entrepreneurship 22 (2): 123–39, https://doi.org/10.1080/08276331.2009.10593446.Search in Google Scholar
Diakanastasi, E., A. Karagiannaki, and K. Pramatari. 2018. “Entrepreneurial Team Dynamics and New Venture Creation Process: An Exploratory Study within a Start-Up Incubator.” Sage Open 8 (2): 1–17, https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244018781446.Search in Google Scholar
Dimov, D. 2010. “Nascent Entrepreneurs and Venture Emergence: Opportunity Confidence, Human Capital, and Early Planning.” Journal of Management Studies 47 (6): 1123–53, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6486.2009.00874.x.Search in Google Scholar
Edelman, L. F., C. G. Brush, T. S. Manolova, and P. G. Greene. 2010. “Start‐up Motivations and Growth Intentions of Minority Nascent Entrepreneurs.” Journal of Small Business Management 48 (2): 174–96.10.1111/j.1540-627X.2010.00291.xSearch in Google Scholar
Fayolle, A., O. Basso, and E. T. Tornikoski. 2011. “Entrepreneurial Commitment and New Venture Creation: A Conceptual Exploration.” In Handbook of Research on New Venture Creation. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing.10.4337/9780857933065.00016Search in Google Scholar
Forbes, D. P. 1999. “Cognitive Approaches to New Venture Creation.” International Journal of Management Reviews 1 (4): 415–39.10.1111/1468-2370.00021Search in Google Scholar
Fornell, C., and D. F. Larcker. 1981. “Structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error: Algebra and statistics.” Journal of Marketing Research 18 (3): 382–88, https://doi.org/10.1177/002224378101800313.Search in Google Scholar
Freeland, R. E., and L. A. Keister. 2016. “How Does Race and Ethnicity Affect Persistence in Immature Ventures?” Journal of Small Business Management 54 (1): 210–28, https://doi.org/10.1111/jsbm.12138.Search in Google Scholar
Fuentelsaz, L., C. González, J. P. Maícas, and J. Montero. 2015. “How Different Formal Institutions Affect Opportunity and Necessity Entrepreneurship.” BRQ Business Research Quarterly 18 (4): 246–58, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brq.2015.02.001.Search in Google Scholar
Gimeno, J., T. B. Folta, A. C. Cooper, and C. Y. Woo. 1997. “Survival of the Fittest? Entrepreneurial Human Capital and the Persistence of Underperforming Firms.” Administrative Science Quarterly 42 (4): 750–83, https://doi.org/10.2307/2393656.Search in Google Scholar
Greene, W. H. 2003. Econometric analysis. Delhi, India: Pearson Education India.Search in Google Scholar
Hair, J., W. Black, B. Babin, and R. Anderson. 2014. “Exploratory Factor Analysis.” In Multivariate Data Analysis, 7th ed. Harlow: Pearson Education.Search in Google Scholar
Hartmann, S., J. Backmann, A. Newman, K. M. Brykman, and R. J. Pidduck. 2022. “Psychological Resilience of Entrepreneurs: A Review and Agenda for Future Research.” Journal of Small Business Management 60 (5): 1–39, https://doi.org/10.1080/00472778.2021.2024216.Search in Google Scholar
Hayes, A. F. 2013. “Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Analysis.” In Introduction to Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Analysis: A Regression-Based Approach, Vol. 1, 20. New York: Guilford Publications.Search in Google Scholar
Hayes, A. F., and M. Scharkow. 2013. “The Relative Trustworthiness of Inferential Tests of the Indirect Effect in Statistical Mediation Analysis: Does Method Really Matter?” Psychological Science 24 (10): 1918–27, https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797613480187.Search in Google Scholar
Hechavarria, D. M., and P. D. Reynolds. 2009. “Cultural Norms & Business Start-Ups: The Impact of National Values on Opportunity and Necessity Entrepreneurs.” The International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal 5 (4): 417–37, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-009-0115-6.Search in Google Scholar
Hechavarria, D., M. Renko, and C. Matthews. 2012. “The Nascent Entrepreneurship Hub: Goals, Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy and Start-Up Outcomes.” Small Business Economics 39 (3): 685–701, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-011-9355-2.Search in Google Scholar
Henrekson, M., and M. Stenkula. 2009. “Entrepreneurship and Public Policy.” In Handbook of Entrepreneurship Research, 595–637. New York: Springer.10.1007/978-1-4419-1191-9_21Search in Google Scholar
Hofstede, G. 1980. “Culture and Organizations.” International Studies of Management & Organization 10 (4): 15–41.10.1080/00208825.1980.11656300Search in Google Scholar
Holland, D. V., and R. P. Garrett. 2015. “Entrepreneur Start-Up versus Persistence Decisions: A Critical Evaluation of Expectancy and Value.” International Small Business Journal 33 (2): 194–215, https://doi.org/10.1177/0266242613480375.Search in Google Scholar
Holland, D. V., and D. A. Shepherd. 2013. “Deciding to Persist: Adversity, Values, and Entrepreneurs’ Decision Policies.” Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice 37 (2): 331–58, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2011.00468.x.Search in Google Scholar
Hopp, C., and R. Sonderegger. 2015. “Understanding the Dynamics of Nascent Entrepreneurship-Prestart-Up Experience, Intentions, and Entrepreneurial Success.” Journal of Small Business Management 53 (4): 1076–96.10.1111/jsbm.12107Search in Google Scholar
Hopp, C., and U. Stephan. 2012. “The Influence of Socio-Cultural Environments on the Performance of Nascent Entrepreneurs: Community Culture, Motivation, Self-Efficacy and Start-Up Success.” Entrepreneurship & Regional Development 24 (9–10): 917–45, https://doi.org/10.1080/08985626.2012.742326.Search in Google Scholar
Khan, S. A., J. Tang, and K. Joshi. 2014. “Disengagement of Nascent Entrepreneurs from the Start‐up Process.” Journal of Small Business Management 52 (1): 39–58, https://doi.org/10.1111/jsbm.12032.Search in Google Scholar
Kim, P. H., K. C. Longest, and H. E. Aldrich. 2013. “Can You Lend Me a Hand? Task-Role Alignment of Social Support for Aspiring Business Owners.” Work and Occupations 40 (3): 213–49, https://doi.org/10.1177/0730888413481365.Search in Google Scholar
Klein, H. J. 1991. “Further Evidence on the Relationship between Goal Setting and Expectancy Theories.” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 49 (2): 230–57, https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90050-4.Search in Google Scholar
Klyver, K., B. Honig, and P. Steffens. 2018. “Social Support Timing and Persistence in Nascent Entrepreneurship: Exploring when Instrumental and Emotional Support Is Most Effective.” Small Business Economics 51 (3): 709–34, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-017-9964-5.Search in Google Scholar
Krueger, N., M. L. Bogers, R. Labaki, and R. Basco. 2021. “Advancing Family Business Science through Context Theorizing: The Case of the Arab World.” Journal of Family Business Strategy 12 (1): 1–6, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfbs.2020.100377.Search in Google Scholar
Latham, G. P., and E. A. Locke. 1991. “Self-regulation through Goal Setting.” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 50 (2): 212–47, https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90021-K.Search in Google Scholar
Lerner, J. 2010. “The Future of Public Efforts to Boost Entrepreneurship and Venture Capital.” Small Business Economics 35 (3): 255–64, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-010-9298-z.Search in Google Scholar
Lim, D. S., E. A. Morse, R. K. Mitchell, and K. K. Seawright. 2010. “Institutional Environment and Entrepreneurial Cognitions: A Comparative Business Systems Perspective.” Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice 34 (3): 491–516, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2010.00384.x.Search in Google Scholar
Liñán, F., J. C. Rodríguez-Cohard, and J. M. Rueda-Cantuche. 2011. “Factors Affecting Entrepreneurial Intention Levels: a Role for Education.” The International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal 7 (2): 195–218, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-010-0154-z.Search in Google Scholar
Locke, E. A., and G. P. Latham. 1990. “Work Motivation and Satisfaction: Light at the End of the Tunnel.” Psychological Science 1 (4): 240–6, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1990.tb00207.x.Search in Google Scholar
Locke, E. A., and G. P. Latham. 2002. “Building a Practically Useful Theory of Goal Setting and Task Motivation.” American Psychologist 57 (9): 705–17, https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.57.9.705.Search in Google Scholar
Lucas, D. S., C. S. Fuller, E. E. Piano, and C. J. Coyne. 2018. “Visions of Entrepreneurship Policy.” Journal of Entrepreneurship and Public Policy 7 (4): 336–56, https://doi.org/10.1108/JEPP-D-18-00034.Search in Google Scholar
Martinez, M. A., T. Yang, and H. E. Aldrich. 2011. “Entrepreneurship as an Evolutionary Process: Research Progress and Challenges.” Entrepreneurship Research Journal 1 (1): 1–26, https://doi.org/10.2202/2157-5665.1009.Search in Google Scholar
McCann, B. T. 2017. “Prior Exposure to Entrepreneurship and Entrepreneurial Beliefs.” International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research 23 (3): 591–612, https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEBR-05-2016-0160.Search in Google Scholar
McCann, B. T., and G. Vroom. 2015. “Opportunity Evaluation and Changing Beliefs during the Nascent Entrepreneurial Process.” International Small Business Journal 33 (6): 612–37, https://doi.org/10.1177/0266242614544198.Search in Google Scholar
McMullen, J. S., and A. S. Kier. 2016. “Trapped by the Entrepreneurial Mindset: Opportunity Seeking and Escalation of Commitment in the Mount Everest Disaster.” Journal of Business Venturing 31 (6): 663–86, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2016.09.003.Search in Google Scholar
Meek, W. R., D. F. Pacheco, and J. G. York. 2010. “The Impact of Social Norms on Entrepreneurial Action: Evidence from the Environmental Entrepreneurship Context.” Journal of Business Venturing 25 (5): 493–509, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2009.09.007.Search in Google Scholar
Meyer, J. P., and L. Herscovitch. 2001. “Commitment in the Workplace: Toward a General Model.” Human Resource Management Review 11 (3): 299–326, https://doi.org/10.1016/S1053-4822(00)00053-X.Search in Google Scholar
Miao, C., S. Qian, and D. Ma. 2017. “The Relationship between Entrepreneurial Self‐efficacy and Firm Performance: a Meta‐analysis of Main and Moderator Effects.” Journal of Small Business Management 55 (1): 87–107, https://doi.org/10.1111/jsbm.12240.Search in Google Scholar
Muñoz, P., and E. Kibler. 2016. “Institutional Complexity and Social Entrepreneurship: A Fuzzy-Set Approach.” Journal of Business Research 69 (4): 1314–8, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2015.10.098.Search in Google Scholar
Muñoz-Bullón, F., M. J. Sanchez-Bueno, and A. De Massis. 2020. “Combining Internal and External R&D: The Effects on Innovation Performance in Family and Nonfamily Firms.” Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice 44 (5): 996–1031, https://doi.org/10.1177/1042258719879674.Search in Google Scholar
Nambisan, S., and R. A. Baron. 2013. “Entrepreneurship in Innovation Ecosystems: Entrepreneurs’ Self-Regulatory Processes and Their Implications for New Venture Success.” Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice 37 (5): 1071–97, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2012.00519.x.Search in Google Scholar
Newman, A., M. Obschonka, S. Schwarz, M. Cohen, and I. Nielsen. 2019. “Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy: A Systematic Review of the Literature on its Theoretical Foundations, Measurement, Antecedents, and Outcomes, and an Agenda for Future Research.” Journal of Vocational Behavior 110: 403–19, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2018.05.012.Search in Google Scholar
North, D. C. 1991. “Institutions, Transaction Costs, and the Rise of Merchant Empires.” In The Political Economy of Merchant Empires. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511665288.002Search in Google Scholar
O’Shea, D., F. Buckley, and J. Halbesleben. 2017. “Self-regulation in Entrepreneurs.” Organizational Psychology Review 7 (3): 250–78, https://doi.org/10.1177/2041386617705434.Search in Google Scholar
Pollack, J. M., J. C. Carr, T. L. Michaelis, and D. R. Marshall. 2019. “Hybrid Entrepreneurs’ Self-Efficacy and Persistence Change: A Longitudinal Exploration.” Journal of Business Venturing Insights 12: 1–7, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbvi.2019.e00143.Search in Google Scholar
Raza, A., M. Muffatto, and S. Saeed. 2019. “The Influence of Formal Institutions on the Relationship between Entrepreneurial Readiness and Entrepreneurial Behaviour.” Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development 26 (1): 133–57, https://doi.org/10.1108/JSBED-01-2018-0014.Search in Google Scholar
Reynolds, P. D. 1994. “Autonomous Firm Dynamics and Economic Growth in the United States, 1986–1990.” Regional Studies 28 (4): 429–42, https://doi.org/10.1080/00343409412331348376.Search in Google Scholar
Reynolds, P. D. 2007. Entrepreneurship in the United States: The Future Is Now. New York, NY: Springer Science & Business Media.10.1007/978-0-387-45671-3Search in Google Scholar
Reynolds, P. D. 2017. “When Is a Firm Born? Alternative Criteria and Consequences.” Business Economics 52 (1): 41–56.10.1057/s11369-017-0022-8Search in Google Scholar
Reynolds, P. D., and R. T. Curtin. 2008. “Business Creation in the United States.” Foundations and Trends in Entrepreneurship 4 (3): 155–307, https://doi.org/10.1561/0300000022.Search in Google Scholar
Reynolds, P. D., and S. B. White. 1997. The Entrepreneurial Process: Economic Growth, Men, Women, and Minorities. Westport: Praeger.Search in Google Scholar
Reynolds, P. D., N. Carter, W. Gartner, and P. Greene. 2004. “The Prevalence of Nascent Entrepreneurs in the United States: Evidence from the Panel Study of Entrepreneurial Dynamics.” Small Business Economics 23 (4): 263–84, https://doi.org/10.1023/B:SBEJ.0000032046.59790.45.10.1023/B:SBEJ.0000032046.59790.45Search in Google Scholar
Salvato, C., F. Chirico, and P. Sharma. 2010. “A Farewell to the Business: Championing Exit and Continuity in Entrepreneurial Family Firms.” Entrepreneurship & Regional Development 22 (3–4): 321–48, https://doi.org/10.1080/08985621003726192.Search in Google Scholar
Sambharya, R., and M. Musteen. 2014a. “Institutional Environment and Entrepreneurship: An Empirical Study across Countries.” Journal of International Entrepreneurship 12 (4): 314–30, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10843-014-0137-1.Search in Google Scholar
Sambharya, R., and M. Musteen. 2014b. “Institutional Environment and Entrepreneurship: An Empirical Study across Countries.” Journal of International Entrepreneurship 12 (4): 314–30, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10843-014-0137-1.Search in Google Scholar
Schjoedt, L., and J. B. Craig. 2017. “Development and Validation of a Unidimensional Domain-specific Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy Scale.” International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research 23 (1): 98–113, https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEBR-11-2015-0251.Search in Google Scholar
Seo, M. G., L. F. Barrett, and J. M. Bartunek. 2004. “The Role of Affective Experience in Work Motivation.” Academy of Management Review 29 (3): 423–39.10.2307/20159052Search in Google Scholar
Shane, S., E. A. Locke, and C. J. Collins. 2003. “Entrepreneurial Motivation.” Human Resource Management Review 13 (2): 257–79, https://doi.org/10.1016/s1053-4822(03)00017-2.Search in Google Scholar
Shepherd, D. A., F. P. Saade, and J. Wincent. 2020. “How to Circumvent Adversity? Refugee-Entrepreneurs’ Resilience in the Face of Substantial and Persistent Adversity.” Journal of Business Venturing 35 (4): 1–26, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2019.06.001.Search in Google Scholar
Shook, C. L., R. L. Priem, and J. E. McGee. 2003. “Venture Creation and the Enterprising Individual: A Review and Synthesis.” Journal of Management 29 (3): 379–99, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0149-2063(03)00016-3.Search in Google Scholar
Thomassen, M. L., K. Williams Middleton, M. B. Ramsgaard, H. Neergaard, and L. Warren. 2020. “Conceptualizing Context in Entrepreneurship Education: A Literature Review.” International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research 26 (5): 863–86, https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEBR-04-2018-0258.Search in Google Scholar
Tietz, M. A., J. Lejarraga, and M. Pindard-Lejarraga. 2018. “Getting Your Hopes up but Not Seeing Them through? Experiences as Determinants of Income Expectations and Persistence during the Venturing Process.” Journal of Small Business Management 59 (1): 136–61, https://doi.org/10.1111/jsbm.12472.Search in Google Scholar
Timmons, J. A., S. Spinelli, and Y. Tan. 2004. New Venture Creation: Entrepreneurship For the 21st Century. New York: McGraw-Hill, Irwin.Search in Google Scholar
Uhlaner, L. M., and U. Stephan. 2010. “Performance-based vs Socially Supportive Culture: A Cross-National Study of Descriptive Norms and Entrepreneurship.” Journal of International Business Studies 41 (8): 1347–64, https://doi.org/10.1057/jibs.2010.14.Search in Google Scholar
Urbano, D., and S. Aparicio. 2016. “Entrepreneurship Capital Types and Economic Growth: International Evidence.” Technological Forecasting and Social Change 102: 34–44, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2015.02.018.Search in Google Scholar
Uy, M. A., M. Foo, and R. Ilies. 2015. “Perceived Progress Variability and Entrepreneurial Effort Intensity: The Moderating Role of Venture Goal Commitment.” Journal of Business Venturing 30 (3): 375–89, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2014.02.001.Search in Google Scholar
Van Gelderen, M., R. Thurik, and P. Patel. 2011. “Encountered Problems and Outcome Status in Nascent Entrepreneurship.” Journal of Small Business Management 49 (1): 71–91.10.1111/j.1540-627X.2010.00315.xSearch in Google Scholar
Walsh, L., and B. Martin. 2021. “The Value of Leadership Practices when There Is No One to Lead: A Nascent Entrepreneurship Context.” Journal of Small Business Management, https://doi.org/10.1080/00472778.2021.1989444.Search in Google Scholar
Webb, J. W., T. A. Khoury, and M. A. Hitt. 2020. “The Influence of Formal and Informal Institutional Voids on Entrepreneurship.” Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice 44 (3): 504–26, https://doi.org/10.1177/1042258719830310.Search in Google Scholar
Welter, F., W. B. Gartner, and M. Wright. 2016. “The Context of Contextualizing Contexts.” In A Research Agenda for Entrepreneurship and Context, 1–15. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing.10.4337/9781784716844.00005Search in Google Scholar
Wennekers, S., and R. Thurik. 1999. “Linking Entrepreneurship and Economic Growth.” Small Business Economics 13 (1): 27–56, https://doi.org/10.2307/40229031.Search in Google Scholar
Williams, T., D. Gruber, K. M. Sutcliffe, D. A. Shepherd, and E. Y. Zhao. 2017. “Organizational Response to Adversity: Fusing Crisis Management and Resilience Research Streams.” The Academy of Management Annals 11 (2): 733–69, https://doi.org/10.5465/annals.2015.0134.Search in Google Scholar
Yang, Y., and S. M. Danes. 2015. “Resiliency and Resilience Process of Entrepreneurs in New Venture Creation.” Entrepreneurship Research Journal 5 (1): 1–30, https://doi.org/10.1515/erj-2013-0076.Search in Google Scholar
Zeidner, M., M. Boekaerts, and P. R. Pintrich. 2000. “Self-regulation: Directions and Challenges for Future Research.” In Handbook of Self-Regulation, 749–68. London, UK: Academic Press.10.1016/B978-012109890-2/50052-4Search in Google Scholar
© 2022 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston
