Abstract
Nonpoint source pollution from agricultural runoff which contains hazardous agrochemicals like pesticides and fertilizers threatens water bodies, posing a serious danger to aquatic ecosystems and drinking water resources. Use of agrochemicals in rice cultivation has rapidly increased in the last few decades in Sri Lanka. It has been reported that many agrochemicals contain toxic trace elements like As, Cd, Pb, Zn, Cu, Ni, Cr, Al, etc. To reduce the harmful effect of heavy metal containing agrochemicals, the Government of Sri Lanka has banned the use of several toxic agrochemicals in recent years. In this context, this study was conducted after posing these restrictions to assess the occurrence of heavy metals in surface water bodies in rice cultivation areas in Trincomalee district, Sri Lanka. Ninety-three (n = 93) sample locations were randomly selected for collection of water, before and after applying agrochemicals to rice fields. This include areas from rural farming communities having endemic (Padavi Sripura DS) and non-endemic (Kanthala DS and Seruvila DS) Chronic Kidney Disease of unknown etiology (CKDu). Mean and standard error of mean of As, Cd, Pb, Cu and Zn concentrations (µg/L) before and after applying agrochemicals were as {0.048 ± 0.038 and 6.220 ± 0.912}, {0.014 ± 0.013 and 0.371 ± 0.192}, {not detected and 4.421 ± 0.712}, {1.583 ± 0.397 and 1.262 ± 0.165} and {not detected and 6.403 ± 0.366}, respectively. Findings revealed that concentrations of As, Cd, Pb and Zn were significantly different (p < 0.001) before and after the application of agrochemicals. However, the observed heavy metal concentrations were far below the permissible levels for irrigation water set by Food and Agriculture Organization and United States Environmental Protection Agency, ambient water quality set by Central Environmental Authority, and drinking water quality set by World Health Organization. In addition, analyzed heavy metal concentrations in surface water samples from CKDu endemic areas were not significantly different from those from non-endemic areas (p < 0.05). To our knowledge, this is the first report of heavy metal analysis after government ban of agrochemicals. Therefore, continuous detailed research is required to fully comprehend the behavior of agrochemicals in surface water bodies in Sri Lanka.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Alengebawy A, Abdelkhalek ST, Qureshi SR, Wang M-Q (2021) Heavy metals and pesticides toxicity in agricultural soil and plants: Ecological risks and human health implications. Toxics. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics9030042
Ali H, Khan E, Ilahi I (2019) Environmental chemistry and ecotoxicology of hazardous heavy metals: Environmental persistence, toxicity, and bioaccumulation. J Chem. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/6730305
Alwis GKH, Wijesekera RD, Jayasekera TADNAK (2006) Use patterns and residue levels of pesticides on Mukunuwenna, a leafy vegetable grown in Sri Lanka. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 76(1):119–125. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-005-0897-3
Aravinna AGP, Priyantha N, Pitawala HMTGA, Yatigammana SK (2017) Use pattern of pesticides and their predicted mobility into shallow groundwater and surface water bodies of paddy lands in Mahaweli river basin in Sri Lanka. J Environ Sci Health Part B Pestic Food Contam Agric Wastes 52(1):37–47. https://doi.org/10.1080/03601234.2016.1229445
Aravinna, A. G. P., Liyanage, J. A., Mubarak, A. M., Wickramaratne, S., & Liyanage, S. (2006). Monitoring of widely used pesticides in surface water reservoirs and shallow wells in Walawe area. Sri Lanka Assassination for the Advance of Science, Proceedings of the 62nd Annual Session.
Athuraliya NTC, Abeysekera TDJ, Amerasinghe PH, Kumarasiri R, Bandara P, Karunaratne U, Milton AH, Jones AL (2011) Uncertain etiologies of proteinuric-chronic kidney disease in rural Sri Lanka. Kidney Int 80(11):1212–1221. https://doi.org/10.1038/ki.2011.258
Bandara JMRS, Senevirathna DMAN, Dasanayake DMRSB, Herath V, Bandara JMRP, Abeysekara T, Rajapaksha KH (2008) Chronic renal failure among farm families in cascade irrigation systems in Sri Lanka associated with elevated dietary cadmium levels in rice and freshwater fish (Tilapia). Environ Geochem Health 30(5):465–478. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-007-9129-6
Central Environmental Authority (CEA). (2019). Ambient Water Quality Standards.
Chandrajith R, Nanayakkara S, Itai K, Aturaliya TNC, Dissanayake CB, Abeysekera T, Harada K, Watanabe T, Koizumi A (2011) Chronic kidney diseases of uncertain etiology (CKDue) in Sri Lanka: Geographic distribution and environmental implications. Environ Geochem Health 33(3):267–278. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-010-9339-1
Chandrajith R, Ariyaratna T, Dissanayake CB (2012) The Status of cadmium in the Geo-environment of Sri Lanka. Ceylon J Sci Phys Sci 16:47–53
Chappells H, Campbell N, Drage J, Fernandez CV, Parker L, Dummer TJB (2015) Science of the total environment understanding the translation of scientific knowledge about arsenic risk exposure among private well water users in Nova Scotia. Sci Total Environ 505:1259–1273. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.12.108
Department of Agriculture (DOA). (2019). Pesticide Recommendations. http://doa.gov.lk/ICC/images/publication/Books/Books/Pesticide20_08_11ver3.pdf
Department of Census and Statistics Sri Lanka. (2020). Paddy statistics 2019/2020 Maha Season. http://www.statistics.gov.lk/Agriculture/StaticalInformation/PaddyStatistics/PaddyStatistics/2019-20MahaSeason
Dissanayake CB, Chandrajith R (2009) Phosphate mineral fertilizers, trace metals and human health. J Natl Sci Found 37(3):153–165. https://doi.org/10.4038/jnsfsr.v37i3.1219
Dissanayake DMPNK, De Silva SNT, Pathmarajah S, Kodagoda KADA, Chandimal TMR, Herath HMTD (2022) Pesticide usage pattern in rice cultivation in Trincomalee district in Sri Lanka. Trop Agric Res 33(2):173–182. https://doi.org/10.4038/tar.v33i2.8474
Dutcher, J. D. (2007). A Review of Resurgence and Replacement Causing Pest Outbreaks in IPM. Ciancio, A., Mukerji, K.G. (Eds) General Concepts in Integrated Pest and Disease Management. Integrated Management of Plants Pests and Diseases, Vol 1. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-6061-8_2
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations. (1985). Mid-decade review of food and agriculture.
Herath HMAS, Kubota K, Kawakami T, Nagasawa S, Motoyama A, Weragoda SK, Chaminda GGT, Yatigammana SK (2017) Potential risk of drinking water to human health in Sri Lanka. Environmental Forensics 18(3):241–250. https://doi.org/10.1080/15275922.2017.1340364
Herath HMAS, Kawakami T, Nagasawa S, Serikawa Y, Motoyama A, Tushara Chaminda GG, Weragoda SK, Yatigammana SK, Amarasooriya AAGD (2018) Arsenic, cadmium, lead, and chromium in well water, rice, and human urine in Sri Lanka in relation to chronic kidney disease of unknown etiology. J Water Health 16(2):212–222. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2018.070
Ileperuma OA (2000) Environmental pollution in Sri Lanka: a review. J Natl Sci Found 28(4):301–325. https://doi.org/10.4038/jnsfsr.v28i4.2644
Jayasumana MACS, Gajanayake R, Siribaddana S (2014) Importance of Arsenic and pesticides in epidemic chronic kidney disease in Sri Lanka. BMC Nephrol 15:124. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2369-15-124
Jayasumana MACS, Fonseka S, Fernando A, Jayalath K, Amarasinghe M, Siribaddana S, Gunatilake S, Paranagama P (2015a) Phosphate fertilizer is a main source of arsenic in areas affected with chronic kidney disease of unknown etiology in Sri Lanka. Springerplus 4(1):1–8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40064-015-0868-z
Jayasumana MACS, Paranagama P, Agampodi S, Wijewardane C, Gunatilake S, Siribaddana S (2015b) Drinking well water and occupational exposure to Herbicides is associated with chronic kidney disease, in Padavi-Sripura Sri Lanka. Environ Health. https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069X-14-6
Jayasumana, M. A. C. S., Paranagama, P. A., Fonseka, M. A., & Wijekoon, D. V. K. (2011). Presence of Arsenic in pesticides used in Sri Lanka. Water Professionals’ Day Symposium, 18. http://www.lankaweb.com/news/items11/Arsenic-Paper.pdf
Jayatilake N, Mendis S, Maheepala P, Mehta FR (2013) Chronic kidney disease of uncertain aetiology: Prevalence and causative factors in a developing country. BMC Nephrol 14(1):1. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2369-14-180
Jiao W, Chen W, Chang AC, Page AL (2012) Environmental risks of trace elements associated with long-term phosphate fertilizers applications: A review. Environ Pollut. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2012.03.052
Karunaratne SHPP, Weerakoon KC, Nugaliyadda L, Manuweera GK (2007) Susceptibility of rice insect pests and their natural enemies to commonly used insecticides. J Natl Sci Found 35(2):97–102. https://doi.org/10.4038/jnsfsr.v35i2.3673
Land Use Policy Planning Department (LUPPD) Ministry of Lands. (2016). Land use plan Trincomalee district. https://luppd.gov.lk/images/content_image/downloads/pdf/llrc_trincomalee.pdf
Mahagamage, M. G. Y. L., Chinthaka, S. D. M., & Manage, P. M. (2018). Assessment of surface water pollution by heavy metals in Kelani river basin, Sri Lanka. Symposium Proceedings, Sixth International Symposium on Water Quality and Human Health: Challenges Ahead, PGIS, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, July
Marasinghe, J. P., Gamage, C., Shiromi, M. G. D., & Aravinna, A. G. P. (2011). Organophosphate pesticides residues in food commodities in Sri Lanka: A review. Annals of the Sri Lanka Department of Agriculture, 13, 81–93. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258227161%0AOrganophosphate
Padmajani, M. T., Aheeyar, M. M. M., & Bandara, M. A. C. S. (2014). Assessment of pesticide usage in up-country vegetable farming in Sri Lanka. HARTI Research Report No: 164 Hector Kobbekaduwa Agrarian Research and Training Institute. https://doi.org/10.13140/2.1.4241.7289
Perera PACT, Sundarabarathy TV, Sivananthawerl T, Suranga PK, Edirisinghe U (2016) Arsenic and Cadmium contamination in water, sediments and fish is a consequence of paddy cultivation: Evidence of river pollution in Sri Lanka. Achiev Life Sci 10(2):144–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.als.2016.11.002
Premarathna HMPL, Hettiarachchi GM, Indraratne SP (2010) Trace metal concentration in crops and soils collected from intensively cultivated areas of Sri Lanka. Pedologist 54(3):230–240
Selvarajah, A., & Thiruchelvam, S. (2007). Factors affecting pesticide use by farmers in vavuniya district. Tropical Agricultural Research, 19, 380–388. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/a187/d9eff65da2f03ca4f01b94a84dd05c64c6f5.pdf
Sri Lankan Standard Institute. (2013). SLS Standard 614:2013. Sri Lankan Standard Institute, Colombo.
Sri Lankan Standard Institute. (2019). SLS Standard 894:2019. Sri Lankan Standard Institute, Colombo.
United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2012). Guidelines for Water Reuse. In United States Agency for International Development, Washington, district of Columbia. http://www.epa.gov/nrmrl/pubs/625r04108/625r04108.pdf
Wasana HMS, Aluthpatabendi D, Bandara J (2012) Drinking water quality assessment towards “Chronic Kidney Disease of unknown etiology (CKDu)” in North Central Province (NCP) of Sri Lanka. Challenges Ahead, International Symposium on Water Quality and Human Helath
Wijayawardhana D, Herath V, Weerasinghe A (2016) Heavy metal pollution in Sri Lanka with special reference to agriculture: a review of current research evidence. Rajarata Univ J 4(1):52–56
Wijesekara GA, Marambe B (2011) Arsenic in the environment–an overview on global and Sri Lankan context. Ann Sri Lanka Dep Agric 13:229–243
Wilson C, Tisdell C (2001) Why farmers continue to use pesticides despite environmental, health and sustainability costs. Ecol Econ 39(3):449–462. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921-8009(01)00238-5
World Health Organization (WHO). (2011). Guidelines for drinking-water quality, fourth edition.
Acknowledgments
Authors wish to express their sincere gratitude to all respondents for their valuable cooperation in responding to the questionnaire. A special acknowledgement goes to extension staff of the inter-Province, Trincomalee, for their assistance provided. Authors gratefully acknowledge the Sri Lanka Council for Agriculture Research Policy (SLCARP) for their financial support (NARP/CARP/16/WUSL/ASC/01).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding authors
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Dissanayke, D.M.P.N.K., De Silva, S.N.T., Pathmarajah, S. et al. Occurrence of heavy metals in surface water bodies in rice cultivation areas in Trincomalee district, Sri Lanka. Paddy Water Environ 21, 1–14 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10333-022-00909-3
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10333-022-00909-3