Abstract
A treatment to improve the reaction to fire of wood is the wood mineralization. Besides the reaction to fire of the mineralized wood, other mechanical and physical properties are less investigated. In this study, beech and oak were treated in a 2-step mineralization process to obtain calcium oxalate mineralized wood. The 2-step mineralization process is carried out by impregnating two salts diluted in water into the wood, consecutively. Two formulations were applied. For Formulation 1, potassium oxalate and calcium acetate and for Formulation 2 potassium oxalate and calcium chloride were used. Aim of the study is to investigate the impact of the treatments and in combination of the moisture on some selected properties of the mineralized wood. These properties are the swelling due to the mineralization treatment, the Brinell hardness and the volatile organic compounds emissions. The 2-step mineralization treatments increased the moisture adsorption of wood. However, the removal of unreacted precursors due to leaching provides a material with comparable moisture dynamics to untreated wood. Swelling, hardness and volatile organic compounds emissions are decreased by the mineralization. However, leaching of the reaction by-products leads to a material with comparable properties to those of untreated wood.
Funding source: Innosuisse - Schweizerische Agentur fuer Innovationsfoerderung
-
Author contributions: All the authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this submitted manuscript and approved submission.
-
Research funding: This work was supported by the Innosuisse – Schweizerische Agentur fuer Innovationsfoerderung.
-
Conflict of interest statement: The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding this article.
References
Akçay, Ç. (2020). Determination of decay, larvae resistance, water uptake, color, and hardness properties of wood impregnated with honeybee wax. BioRes 15: 8339–8354, https://doi.org/10.15376/biores.15.4.8339-8354.Search in Google Scholar
Benítez, V., Franco, J., Camargo, Á., Raimonda, P., Mantero, C., and Ibáñez, C.M. (2021). Influence of initial wood moisture on decay process by two Brown-rot fungi. Madera. Sci. Tecnol. 23: 1–12, https://doi.org/10.4067/s0718-221x2021000100434.Search in Google Scholar
Brischke, C. and Rapp, A.O. (2008). Influence of wood moisture content and wood temperature on fungal decay in the field: observations in different micro-climates. Wood Sci. Technol. 42: 663–677, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00226-008-0190-9.Search in Google Scholar
Budakçi, M., Pelit, H., Sönmez, A., and Korkmaz, M. (2016). The effects of densification and heat post-treatment on hardness and morphological properties of wood materials. Bioresources 11: 7822–7838, https://doi.org/10.15376/biores.11.3.7822-7838.Search in Google Scholar
Čech, P. (2018). Comparison of VOC emissions from natural wood and heat treated wood. Drvna. Ind. 69: 297–309, https://doi.org/10.5552/drind.2018.1708.Search in Google Scholar
Chauhan, S.S. and Aggarwal, P. (2004). Effect of moisture sorption state on transverse dimensional changes in wood. Holz Roh. Werkst. 62: 50–55, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00107-003-0437-y.Search in Google Scholar
Christensen, G. (1967). Sorption and swelling within wood cell walls. Nature 25: 782–784, https://doi.org/10.1038/213782a0.Search in Google Scholar
DIN EN 16516:2018-01 (2018). Construction products – assessment of release of dangerous substances – determination of emissions into indoor air. European Committee for Standardization, Brussels.Search in Google Scholar
Duong, A., Steinmaus, C., McHale, C.M., Vaughan, C.P., and Zhang, L. (2011). Reproductive and developmental toxicity of formaldehyde: a systematic review. Mutat. Res. 728: 118–138, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mrrev.2011.07.003.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
Epmeier, H., Westin, M., and Rapp, A. (2004). Differently modified wood: comparison of some selected properties. Scand. J. Forest. Res. 19: 31–37, https://doi.org/10.1080/02827580410017825.Search in Google Scholar
Esteves, B. and Pereira, H. (2009). Wood modification by heat treatment: a review. BioRes 4: 370–404, https://doi.org/10.15376/biores.4.1.370-404.Search in Google Scholar
Fengel, D. and Wegener, G. (1984). Wood - chemistry, ultrastructure and reactions. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, New York.10.1515/9783110839654Search in Google Scholar
Franke, T., Lenz, C., Herold, N.O.N., and Pfriem, A. (2017). Microscopic and macroscopic swelling and dimensional stability of beech wood impregnated with phenol-formaldehyde. ProLigno 13: 18–27.Search in Google Scholar
Franke, T., Larnoy, E., and Volkmer, T. (2023). Thermal behaviour and reaction to fire of European beech (Fagus sylvatica) treated with various salts and mineralization formulations, PREPRINT https://doi.org/10.36227/techrxiv.22495993.Search in Google Scholar
Franke, T. and Volkmer, T. (2019). Treatment of European beech with a new wood fire retardant agent based on in situ deposition of calcium oxalate. Holzforschung 73: 1047–1050, https://doi.org/10.1515/hf-2019-0043.Search in Google Scholar
Franke, T. and Volkmer, T. (2021). Mineralization treatment of European oak heartwood with calcium oxalate for improved fi re retardancy. Holzforschung 76: 77–88, https://doi.org/10.1515/hf-2021-0055.Search in Google Scholar
Furuno, T. and Uehara, T.J.S. (1991). Combination of Wood and Silica 1. Impregnation by water glass and applications of aluminium sulfate and calcium chloride as reactants. Mokuzai Gakkaishi 37: 462–472.Search in Google Scholar
Furuno, T., Imamura, Y., and Kajita, H. (2004). The modification of wood by treatment with low molecular weight phenol-formaldehyde resin: a properties enhancement with neutralized phenolic-resin and resin penetration into wood cell walls. Wood Sci. Technol. 37: 349–361, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00226-003-0176-6.Search in Google Scholar
Gabrielli, C.P. and Kamke, F.A. (2010). Phenol-formaldehyde impregnation of densified wood for improved dimensional stability. Wood Sci. Technol. 44: 95–104, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00226-009-0253-6.Search in Google Scholar
Garskaite, E., Karlsson, O., Stankeviciute, Z., Kareiva, A., Jones, D., and Sandberg, D. (2019). Surface hardness and flammability of Na2SiO3 and nano-TiO2 reinforced wood composites. Rsc. Adv. 9: 27973–27986, https://doi.org/10.1039/c9ra05200c.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
Griffin, D.M. (1977). Water potential and wood-decay fungi. Ann. Rev. Phytopathol. 1977. 15:319-329, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.py.15.090177.001535,Search in Google Scholar
Gunduz, G., Aydemir, D., and Karakas, G. (2009). The effects of thermal treatment on the mechanical properties of wild Pear (Pyrus elaeagnifolia Pall.) wood and changes in physical properties. Mater. Des. 30: 4391–4395, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2009.04.005.Search in Google Scholar
Guo, H., Luković, M., Mendoza, M., Schlepütz, C.M., Griffa, M., Xu, B., Gaan, S., Herrmann, H., and Burgert, I. (2019). Bioinspired struvite mineralization for fire-resistant wood. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 11: 5427–5434, https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.8b19967.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
Gupta, K.C., Ulsamer, A.G., and Preuss, P.W. (1982). Formaldehyde in indoor air: sources and toxicity. Environ. Int. 8: 349–358, https://doi.org/10.1016/0160-4120(82)90049-6.Search in Google Scholar
Hernández, R.E. and Pontin, M. (2006). Shrinkage of three tropical hardwoods below and above the fiber saturation point. Wood Fiber Sci. 38: 474–483.Search in Google Scholar
Hill, C.A.S. (2006). Wood modification: chemical, thermal and other processes. In: Wood modification: chemical, thermal and other processes.. John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, Sussex, UK,.10.1002/0470021748Search in Google Scholar
Hill, C.A.S. (2009). Why does acetylation protect wood from microbiological attack? Wood Mater. Sci. Eng. 4: 37–45, https://doi.org/10.1080/17480270903249409.Search in Google Scholar
Jensen, L.K., Larsen, A., Mølhave, L., Hansen, M.K., and Knudsen, B. (2001). Health evaluation of volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions from wood and wood-based materials. Arch. Environ. Health. 56: 419–432, https://doi.org/10.1080/00039890109604477.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
Kollmann, F. and Schneider, A. (1959). Sorptionsmessungen an mit Salzen imprägnierten HölzernMeasuring of sorption on woods impregnated with protective salts. Holz Roh. Werkst. 17: 212–218, https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02608814.Search in Google Scholar
Laine, K., Segerholm, K., Wålinder, M., Rautkari, L., and Hughes, M. (2016). Wood densification and thermal modification: hardness, set-recovery and micromorphology. Wood Sci. Technol. 50: 883–894, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00226-016-0835-z.Search in Google Scholar
Lande, S., Westin, M., and Schneider, M. (2004). Properties of furfurylated wood. Scand. J. Forest. Res. 19: 22–30. https://doi.org/10.1080/0282758041001915.Search in Google Scholar
Lesar, B., Gorišek, Ž., and Humar, M. (2009). Sorption properties of wood impregnated with boron compounds, sodium chloride and glucose. Dry. Technol. 27: 94–102, https://doi.org/10.1080/07373930802565947.Search in Google Scholar
Levan, S. and Winandy, J. (1990). Effects of fire retardant treatments on wood strength: a review. Wood Fiber Sci. 22: 113–131.Search in Google Scholar
Li, J.Z., Furuno, T., and Katoh, S. (2000). Dimensional stability and flame resistance of silicate-acetylated and -propionylated wood composites. J. Wood Chem. Technol. 20: 441–453, https://doi.org/10.1080/02773810009351893.Search in Google Scholar
Mai, C. and Militz, H. (2004). Modification of wood with silicon compounds. Inorganic silicon compounds and sol-gel systems: a review. Wood Sci. Technol. 37: 339–348, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00226-003-0205-5.Search in Google Scholar
Mantanis, G.I. (2017). Chemical modification of wood by acetylation or furfurylation: a review of the present scaled-up technologies. BioRes 12: 4478–4489, https://doi.org/4478-4489 10.15376/BIORES.12.2.MANTANIS.10.15376/biores.12.2.MantanisSearch in Google Scholar
Mantanis, G.I., Young, R.A., and Rowell, R.M. (1994). Swelling of wood Part 1. Swelling in water. Wood Sci. Technol. 28: 119–134, https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00192691.Search in Google Scholar
Merk, V., Chanana, M., Keplinger, T., Gaan, S., and Burgert, I. (2015). Hybrid wood materials with improved fire retardance by bio-inspired mineralisation on the nano-and submicron level. Green Chem. 17: 1423–1428, https://doi.org/10.1039/c4gc01862a.Search in Google Scholar
Merk, V., Chanana, M., Gaan, S., and Burgert, I. (2016). Mineralization of wood by calcium carbonate insertion for improved flame retardancy. Holzforschung 70: 867–876, https://doi.org/10.1515/hf-2015-0228.Search in Google Scholar
Meyer, B. and Boehme, C. (1997). Formaldehyde emission from solid wood. For. Prod. J. 47: 45–48.Search in Google Scholar
Meyer, L. and Brischke, C. (2015). Fungal decay at different moisture levels of selected European-grown wood species. Int. Biodeter. Biodegr 103: 23–29, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibiod.2015.04.0. 09.10.1016/j.ibiod.2015.04.009Search in Google Scholar
Moya, R., Gaitan-Alvarez, J., Berrocal, A., and Araya, F. (2020). Effect of CaC03 on the wood properties of tropical hardwood species from fast-growth plantation in Costa Rica. BioRes 15: 4802–4822, https://doi.org/10.15376/biores.15.3.4802-4822.Search in Google Scholar
Munier, L.F., Franke, T., Herold, N., and Pfriem, A. (2018). The effect of humidity and temperature on the dynamic-mechanical behaviour of phenol-formaldehyde impregnated beech wood veneer. BioRes. 15: 1563–1574.10.15376/biores.15.1.1563-1574Search in Google Scholar
Niemz, P., Ozyhar, T., Hering, S., and Sonderegger, W. (2015). Moisture dependent physical-mechanical properties from beech wood in the main directions. ProLigno 11: 37–42.Search in Google Scholar
Nyrud, A.Q., Bringslimark, T., and Englund, F. (2012). Wood use in a hospital environment: VOC emissions and air quality. Eur. J. Wood Wood Prod. 70: 541–543, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00107-011-0578-3.Search in Google Scholar
Ohmae, K., Minato, K., and Norimoto, M. (2002). The analysis of dimensional changes due to chemical treatments and water soaking for hinoki (Chamaecyparis obtusa) wood. Holzforschung 56: 98–102, https://doi.org/10.1515/HF.2002.016.Search in Google Scholar
Oikawa, T., Matsui, T., Matsuda, Y., Takayama, T., Niinuma, H., Nishida, Y., Hoshi, K., and Yatagai, M. (2005). Volatile organic compounds from wood and their influences on museum artifact materials I. Differences in wood species and analyses of causal substances of deterioration. J. Wood Sci. 51: 363–369, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10086-004-0654-y.Search in Google Scholar
Ozyhar, T., Hering, S., and Niemz, P. (2012). Moisture-dependent elastic and strength anisotropy of European beech wood in tension. J. Mater. Sci. 47: 6141–6150, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-012-6534-8.Search in Google Scholar
Ozyhar, T., Tschannen, C., Hilty, F., Thoemen, H., Schoelkopf, J., and Zoppe, J.O. (2021). Mineral-based composition with deliquescent salt as flame retardant for melamine–urea–formaldehyde (MUF)-bonded wood composites. Wood Sci. Technol. 55: 5–32, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00226-020-01230-0.Search in Google Scholar
Pohleven, J., Burnard, M.D., and Kutnar, A. (2019). Volatile organic compounds emitted from untreated and thermally modified wood - a review. Wood Fiber Sci. 51: 231–254, https://doi.org/10.22382/wfs-2019-023.Search in Google Scholar
Rautkari, L., Laine, K., Kutnar, A., Medved, S., and Hughes, M. (2013). Hardness and density profile of surface densified and thermally modified Scots pine in relation to degree of densification. J. Mater. Sci. 48: 2370–2375, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-012-7019-5.Search in Google Scholar
Risholm-Sundman, M., Lundgren, M., Vestin, E., and Herder, P. (1998). Emissions of acetic acid and other volatile organic compounds from different species of solid wood. Holz Roh. Werkst. 56: 125–129, https://doi.org/10.1007/s001070050282.Search in Google Scholar
Roffael, E. (1989). Abgabe von flüchtigen organischen Säuren aus Holzspänen und Holzspanplatten. Holzforschung 47: 447–452, https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02640138.Search in Google Scholar
Rowell, R.M. (2006). Chemical modification of wood: a short review. Wood Mater. Sci. Eng. 1: 29–33, https://doi.org/10.1080/17480270600670923.Search in Google Scholar
Rowell, R.M. (2016). Dimensional stability and fungal durability of acetylated wood. Drewno 59: 139–150, https://doi.org/10.12841/wood.1644-3985.C14.04.Search in Google Scholar
Rowell, R.M. and Dickerson, J.P. (2014). Acetylation of wood. ACS Symp. Ser. 1158: 301–327, https://doi.org/10.1021/bk-2014-1158.ch018.Search in Google Scholar
Rowell, R.M. and Ellis, W.D. (1978). Determination of dimensional stabilization of wood using the water-soak method. Wood Fiber Sci. 10: 104–111.Search in Google Scholar
Rowell, R.M., Ibach, R.E., Mcsweeny, J., and Thomas, N. (2009). Understanding decay resistance, dimensional stability and strength changes in heat-treated and acetylated wood. Wood Mater. Sci. Eng. 4: 14–22, https://doi.org/10.1080/17480270903261339.Search in Google Scholar
Srinivas, K. and Pandey, K.K. (2012). Effect of heat treatment on color changes, dimensional stability, and mechanical properties of wood. J. Wood Chem. Technol. 32: 304–316, https://doi.org/10.1080/02773813.2012.674170.Search in Google Scholar
Samide, M.J., Liggett, M.C., Mill, J., and Smith, G.D. (2018). Relating volatiles analysis by GC–MS to Oddy test performance for determining the suitability of museum construction materials. Herit. Sci. 6: 1–10, https://doi.org/10.1186/s40494-018-0213-2.Search in Google Scholar
Sandberg, D., Kutnar, A., Karlsson, O., and Jones, D. (2021). Wood modification technologies - principles, sustainability, and the need for innovation, 1st ed Taylor and Francis Group, Boca Raton, London, New York.10.1201/9781351028226-1Search in Google Scholar
Sandermann, W., Gerhardt, G., and Weissmann, U. (1970). Untersuchungen über flüchtige organische Säuren in einigen Holzarten. Holz Roh. Werkst. 2: 59–67, https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02615626.Search in Google Scholar
Shi, J.L., Kocaefe, D., and Zhang, J. (2007). Mechanical behaviour of Quebec wood species heat-treated using thermo wood process. Holz Roh Werkst (2007) 65: 255–259, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00107-007-0173-9, Search in Google Scholar
Simpson, W.T. (1999). Drying and control of moisture content and dimensional changes. In: Forest Products Laboratory (Ed.). Wood handbook—wood as an engineering material, 463. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, WI, pp. 13.1–13.19.Search in Google Scholar
Wallström, L. and Lindberg, K.A.H. (1999). Measurement of cell wall penetration in wood of water-based chemicals using SEM/EDS and STEM/EDS technique. Wood Sci. Technol. 33: 111–122, https://doi.org/10.1007/s002260050103.Search in Google Scholar
Wang, S.Y. and Wang, H.L. (1999). Effects of moisture content and specific gravity on static bending properties and hardness of six wood species. J. Wood Sci. 45: 127–133, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01192329.Search in Google Scholar
Yildiz, S., Gezer, E.D., and Yildiz, U.C. (2006). Mechanical and chemical behavior of spruce wood modified by heat. Build. Environ. 41: 1762–1766, https://doi.org/1762-1766 10.1016/j.buildenv.2005.07.017.10.1016/j.buildenv.2005.07.017Search in Google Scholar
© 2023 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston
