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A Delayed Revenge: “Yellow Journalism” and the Long Quest for Cuba, 1851–1898
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 30 June 2023
Abstract
Historians have long been intrigued by the role that the press played in McKinley’s decision to intervene in Cuba in 1898. Most, however, have focused their attention on the decade of the 1890s, ignoring the long history of interventionism aimed at Cuba. This essay uses the story of William L. Crittenden to explore the many instances where interventionists tried (and failed) to drum up support for Cuban intervention. Crittenden was executed by the Spanish in 1851 after a failed filibuster raid. Over the next four decades, interventionists wrote newspaper accounts, held boisterous public meetings, penned poems, and published novels that demanded revenge upon Spain. Yet Millard Fillmore, Franklin Pierce, James Buchanan, Ulysses Grant, and Grover Cleveland did not choose to intervene. By focusing on nearly five decades as opposed to a single year, this essay calls into question the idea that the press reflected public opinion and challenges the larger assertion that the “Yellow Press” propelled the United States into a war with Spain. Whether they shouted “Remember the Maine,” “Remember the Virginius,” or “Remember Crittenden,” writers, editors, poets, and journalists simply did not have the power to control public opinion and certainly did not prove to be successful at manipulating presidents to intervene.
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- © The Author(s), 2023. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Society for Historians of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era (SHGAPE)
References
Notes
1 “‘Remember Crittenden’: New Battle Cry for a New Kentucky Regiment of Volunteers,” Evening Bulletin (Maysville, KY), Apr. 25, 1898.
2 Crittenden is typically discussed in a cursory manner in studies of filibustering. See Brown, Charles H., Agents of Manifest Destiny: The Lives and Times of the Filibusters (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1980), 75Google Scholar, 80–82; 88–89; Tom Chaffin, Fatal Glory: Narciso López and the First Clandestine U.S. War Against Cuba (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1996), 214–15; May, Robert E., Manifest Destiny’s Underworld: Filibustering in Antebellum America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 32–33 Google Scholar; 186; Greenberg, Amy S., Manifest Manhood and the Antebellum American Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 187–89Google Scholar; 219–20.
3 For historians who have seen the press as a factor in the United States’ decision to declare war, see Wilkerson, Marcus M., Public Opinion and the Spanish-American War: A Study in War Propaganda (1932; reprint, New York: Russell & Russell, 1967)Google Scholar, 132; Joseph E. Wisan, The Cuban Crisis as Reflected in the New York Press (1934; reprint, New York: Octagon Books, 1977), 400; 455; Linderman, Gerald F., The Mirror of War: American Society and the Spanish-American War (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1974), 166–70Google Scholar: Trask, David F., The War with Spain in 1898 (New York: Macmillan, 1981), 30–31 Google Scholar; McCartney, Paul T., Power and Progress: American National Identity, the War of 1898, and the Rise of American Imperialism (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2006), 88–92 Google Scholar.
4 For historians who have downplayed the press as a cause of war, see Pérez, Louis A. Jr., The War of 1898: The United States and Cuba in History and Historiography (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998)Google Scholar; Joseph Campbell, W., Yellow Journalism: Puncturing the Myths, Defining the Legacies (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2001), 97–123 Google Scholar; Ferrer, Ada, Cuba: An American History (New York: Scribner, 2021), 151–53Google Scholar.
5 Pérez, Louis A. Jr., Cuba in the American Imagination: Metaphor and the Imperial Ethos (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2008), 25–26 Google Scholar; Rauch, Basil, American Interest in Cuba: 1848-1855 (1948; reprint, New York: Octagon Books, 1974), 99–100 Google Scholar. Antonio Rafael de la Cova, “The Taylor Administration Versus Mississippi Sovereignty: The Round Island Expedition of 1849,” Journal of Mississippi History 62 (Winter 2000): 296–97. It should be noted that only two of these expeditions made it to Cuba.
6 Antonio Rafael de la Cova, “The Kentucky Regiment that Invaded Cuba in 1850,” Register of the Kentucky Historical Society 105 (Autumn 2007): 571.
7 For the Crittenden family, see Kirwin, Albert D., John J. Crittenden: The Struggle for the Union (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1962)Google Scholar; and Damon R. Eubank, In the Shadow of the Patriarch: The John J. Crittenden Family in War & Peace (Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 2009).
8 Brown, Agents of Manifest Destiny, 87–88; Chaffin, Fatal Glory, 214–16.
9 “The Havana Massacre,” Daily Crescent (New Orleans, LA), Aug. 22, 1851.
10 “The Havana Massacre,” Daily Crescent (New Orleans, LA), Aug. 22, 1851.
11 “The Frightful Execution of Fifty Americans in Havana—Horrible Scenes—Insult to the American Flag—Firing into the Steamer Falcon,” New York Herald, Aug. 22, 1851.
12 “Slightly Important from Cuba—Disastrous Result of the Lopez Expedition,” New York Herald, Aug. 22, 1851.
13 “The News from Cuba,” Mississipian (Jackson, MS), Aug. 20, 1851.
14 See “From the New Orleans Picayune of August 23,” National Intelligencer (Washington, D.C.), Sept. 1, 1851; “Further Particulars,” National Intelligencer (Washington, D.C.), Sept. 1, 1851.
15 The National Intelligencer reprinted excerpts from ten different papers to show that many newspapers condemned the raid. See National Intelligencer (Washington, D.C.), Sept. 9, 1851.
16 “Letter from Colonel Crittenden,” North American and United States Gazette (Philadelphia, PA), Sept. 12, 1851.
17 “Letter from Colonel Crittenden,” North American and United States Gazette (Philadelphia, PA), Sept. 12, 1851; “Last of the Flibustiers,” New York Observer and Chronicle, Sept. 11, 1851; “The Cuban Expedition,” Christian Secretary (Hartford, CT), Sept. 12, 1851.
18 “Col. Crittenden Shot,” Louisville Courier, Aug. 26, 1851. “Outrages to the Dead Bodies of the Massacred Fifty,” Louisville Courier, Aug. 30, 1851; “Correspondence of The Courier: The Cuban Outbreak—The Disposition of Americans to Aid the Oppressed in Securing their Freedom,” Louisville Courier, Sept. 1, 1851.
19 “The End May Not be Yet,” Louisville Courier, Sept. 15, 1851; “William S. Crittenden,” Louisville Courier, Sept. 8, 1851; “From a Kentuckian Who Started for Cuba,” Louisville Courier, Sept. 16, 1851; Kentuckian in New Orleans, “Correspondence of the Courier,” Louisville Courier, Sept. 24, 1851; “An Anecdote of Col. Crittenden,” Charleston Courier, reprinted in Louisville Courier, Sept. 20, 1851; “The Purchase of Cuba,” Louisville Courier, Sept. 30, 1851; “The Interference of France and England,” Louisville Courier, Oct. 4, 1851; “Cuba and the Administration,” Louisville Courier, Oct. 14, 1851; “British Interference on Account of Cuba,” Louisville Courier, Oct. 24, 1851.
20 Crittenden’s name appeared in the press with various initials for his middle name.
21 “The Cuba Meeting,” Alta California (San Francisco, CA), Oct. 1, 1851.
22 “Correspondence of the Ohio Statesman,” Daily Ohio Statesman (Columbus, OH), Oct. 8, 1851; “Narcisso Lopez and His Companions,” United States Magazine, and Democratic Review 29 (Oct. 1851): 301.
23 James D. Richardson, comp., A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents, 1789-1907, vol. 5 (New York: Bureau of National Literature and Art, 1908), 111; 114–15. For the Whigs’ aversion to territorial expansion, see Wilson, Major L., Space, Time, and Freedom: The Quest for Nationality and the Irrepressible Conflict (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1974), 114–18Google Scholar; Hietala, Thomas R., Manifest Design: Anxious Aggrandizement in Late Jacksonian America (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1985), 81–89 Google Scholar.
24 “The Warrant for the Murder of Crittenden and His Men,” Mississippian qtd. in the Daily Mississippian (Jackson, MS), Feb. 4, 1852.
25 “Speech of Col. Jefferson Davis, At Jackson, June 9, 1852,” Weekly Mississipian (Jackson, MS), Jun. 18, 1852.
26 “Speech of Senator Douglas,” Union (Washington, D.C.), Jul. 18, 1852.
27 “Mass Meeting in Tammany Hall: Immense Gathering of the Democracy,” New York Herald, Oct. 23, 1852. For the Whig response, see “Issues Before the People—No. IV. Flibustierism,” National Intelligencer (Washington, D.C.), Oct. 9, 1852.
28 “The Crescent City Affair Settled,” Mississippi Free Trader (Natchez, MS), Dec. 15, 1852.
29 James D. Richardson, comp., A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents, 1789-1907, vol. 5 (New York: Bureau of National Literature and Art, 1908), 198.
30 “Speech of Senator Douglas,” Union (Washington, D.C.), Jul. 18, 1852.
31 “The Black Warrior,” Mississippi Free Trader (Natchez, MS), Mar. 25, 1854.
32 Edward J. Handiboe, Will Crittenden, Or the Lone Star of Cuba (Cincinnati: U.P. James, 1854). No date is given in the original publication, but papers began to advertise the novel in Mar. of 1854. See “Harper’s Magazine for March,” South Carolinian (Columbia, SC), Mar. 20, 1854.
33 Handiboe, Will Crittenden, 7.
34 Handiboe, Will Crittenden, 7–8.
35 Handiboe, Will Crittenden, 13
36 Handiboe, Will Crittenden, 41–55.
37 Handiboe, Will Crittenden, 19.
38 Handiboe, Will Crittenden, 103.
39 Handiboe, Will Crittenden, 104.
40 In 1854, Pierce put forth two proclamations against filibustering. See James D. Richardson, comp., A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents, 1789-1907, vol. 5 (New York, Bureau of National Literature and Art, 1908), 271; 272.
41 H.M. Hardimann, The Free Flag of Cuba; Or, The Martyrdom of Lopez: A Tale of the Liberating Expedition of 1851 (New York: DeWitt & Davenport, 1855).
42 Hardimann, The Free Flag of Cuba, v.
43 “Song: Philanthropic and Piratical,” United States Review (Jun. 1855): 459. For other calls to avenge Crittenden, see “Cuba, Progress, and Manifest Destiny,” National Intelligencer (Washington, D.C.), Sept. 17, 1853; “The New Captain General,” Comet (Baton Rouge, LA), Sept. 24, 1854.
44 See Rauch, American Interest in Cuba, 262–94; and May, Robert E., Slavery, Race, and Conquest in the Tropics: Lincoln, Douglas, and the Future of Latin America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 165–68CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
45 Foner, Eric, Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party Before the Civil War (1970; reprint, New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 228 Google Scholar.
46 Gienapp, William E., The Origins of the Republican Party, 1852-1856 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 357–60Google Scholar; and May, Slavery, Race, and Conquest in the Tropics, 175–81. For southern views on Cuba, see especially Matthew Karp, This Vast Southern Empire: Slaveholders at the Helm of American Foreign Policy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2016); and Kevin Waite, West of Slavery: The Southern Dream of a Transcontinental Empire (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2021), 14.
47 “Speech of the Hon. Wm. Barksdale,” Mississipian (Jackson, MS), Sept. 30, 1859.
48 “Annexation on a Grand Scale,” Tribune (Jefferson City, MO), qtd. in New Orleans Republican, Mar. 16, 1873.
49 “A Kentucky Hero: The Story of Col. William Logan Crittenden—A Reminiscence of the Lopez Invasion of Cuba,” St.-Louis Republican, qtd. in Courier-Journal (Louisville, KY), Jul. 28, 1873.
50 Nevins, Allan, Hamilton Fish: The Inner History of the Grant Administration (New York: Dodd, Mead and Company, 1937) 249Google Scholar.
51 Calhoun, Charles W., The Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2017), 161–85Google Scholar.
52 For the Virginius Affair, see Henry A. Kmen, “Remember the Virginius: New Orleans and Cuba in 1873,” Louisiana History: The Journal of the Louisiana Historical Association 11 (Autumn 1970): 313–31; Jay Sexton, “The United States, the Cuban Rebellion, and the Multilateral Initiative of 1875,” Diplomatic History 30 (Jun. 2006): 335–65.
53 “CUBA,” New York Herald, Nov. 13, 1873.
54 “CUBA,” Memphis Daily Appeal, Nov. 13, 1873.
55 “The Spanish Butchers,” Courier-Journal (Louisville, KY), Nov. 13, 1873.
56 “More Butchery in Cuba: The Captain and Crew of the Virginius Shot,” New York Sun, Nov. 13, 1873; “The Atrocities in Cuba,” New York Sun, Nov. 14, 1873; “Slaughter in Cuba: Fifty-Seven More Victims to Spanish Brutality,” New York Sun, Nov. 15, 1873.
57 “A Leaf from History: The Lopez Expedition; Barbarous Execution of Crittenden and Fifty Americans—the Action of the Government,” New York Times, Nov. 21, 1873.
58 “Telegraph News from Washington,” Baltimore Sun, Nov. 13, 1873.
59 “Who is Responsible?” Daily Picayune (New Orleans, LA), Nov. 19, 1873.
60 “Cuba: The Last Straw—The Most Fiendish Atrocity Yet Perpetrated in Cuba—Horror on Horror,” Memphis Daily Appeal, Nov. 20, 1873; “The Cuban Atrocity,” Morristown (Tennessee) Gazette, Nov. 26, 1873.
61 “Let Us All Be Quartermasters and Commissaries in Cuba,” Norfolk Virginian, Nov. 22, 1873.
62 “Shall We Have Redress,” Holt County (Missouri) Sentinel, Dec. 5, 1873; “Let Us Recognize Cuba,” Memphis Daily Appeal, Nov. 13, 1873.
63 “Cuba Must Be Liberated,” New York Sun, Nov. 17, 1873.
64 William Driver, “‘God, Liberty and Cuba’: The War Cry of Crittenden,” Nashville Union and American, Nov. 30, 1873.
65 “No Necessity for War Yet,” Rutland (Vermont) Daily Globe, Nov. 15, 1873.
66 “A Georgia Orator on the Cuban Fever,” Atlanta Herald, Nov. 28, 1873, reprinted in Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, Dec. 8, 1873.
67 “The War Cloud,” Perry County (Pennsylvania) Democrat, Nov. 19, 1873.
68 Calhoun, The Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant, 185–97.
69 See Ferrer, Cuba: An American History, 145–53.
70 Edward Wright Brady, “Trying to Free Cuba: Many Unsuccessful Revolts in that Unhappy Land,” Washington Post, June 2, 1895.
71 “Fighting for Freedom,” Chicago Daily Tribune, Sept. 1, 1895.
72 “Cuban Expeditions from New Orleans: A Glimpse Into the Past,” Daily Picayune (New Orleans, LA), Sept. 7, 1896; and “Fate of Filibusters Who Sought to Aid Cuba: Incidents of the ‘Black Warrior’—The ‘Virginius’ Tragedy and the Lessons It Taught,” San Francisco Chronicle, Jan. 5, 1896.
73 Edward Wright Brady, “The Lopez Invasion of Cuba: Being an Account of the Most Daring and Disastrous Attempt to Wrest the ‘Pearl of the Antilles’ from Spain,” Pittsburgh Daily Post, Jun. 4, 1895.
74 “Spanish Ire: Filibusterer Talks on Cuban Revolution: He’s Sole Survivor of 1852 Raid,” Boston Globe, Jun. 11, 1895.
75 P.J. Moran, “Why Not Annex?” Atlanta Constitution, Feb. 12, 1895.
76 John F. Cahill, “Letters from the People: Viva Cuba!” St. Louis Post-Dispatch, Mar. 18, 1895.
77 “Spanish Butcheries: Tragic End of Lopez and His Fellow Patriots,” Times-Democrat (New Orleans, LA), May 30, 1896.
78 “Spain’s Record of Brutality: Her Black and Bloody Catalogue of Atrocities,” New York Sun, Dec. 6, 1896.
79 “Quesada to De Lome: Reaffirms the Charges of Cruelty Against Weyler,” Meriden (Connecticut) Weekly Republican, Mar. 12, 1896.
80 “The Havana Massacre,” Daily Crescent (New Orleans, LA), Aug. 22, 1851.
81 “Logan C. Murray Dying: Paralysis of the Heart Carrying Off a Prominent Kentuckian,” Evening Bulletin (Maysville, KY), Nov. 12, 1896.
82 “Eli Murray is Dead,” The Breckenridge News (Cloverport, KY), Nov. 25, 1896.
83 “Massacred: The Fate of Kentucky’s Last Expedition to Cuba: Reminiscences of the Murder of Col. Crittenden’s Company by the Spanish in 1857,” Morning Herald (Lexington, KY), Dec. 21, 1896; “Died Like Heroes: Death of Crittenden and His Kentucky Followers Who Went to the Rescue of Cuba,” St. Louis Republic, qtd. in Galveston (Texas) Daily News, Jan. 27, 1896.
84 “Earnest Meeting for Free Cuba,” St. Louis Post-Dispatch, Nov. 22, 1896; Isaac Sturgeon, “They Died for Freedom,” St. Louis Post-Dispatch, Jan. 2, 1897.
85 See Margolies, Daniel S., Henry Watterson and the New South: The Politics of Empire, Free Trade, and Globalization (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2006), 159–61CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
86 “Butchery By Spanish Soldiers: Savage Massacre in the Suburbs of Havana,” Courier-Journal (Louisville, KY), Feb. 29, 1896; “Butchery Again Resorted to by Spanish Soldiers in Cuba: Nineteen Persons Massacred,” Courier-Journal (Louisville, KY), Nov. 10, 1896.
87 C.K. Sears, “Some Indisputable Facts about Cuba: Spain’s Cruel and Corrupt Despotism,” Courier-Journal (Louisville, KY), May 23, 1897.
88 “Recognize Cuba,” Courier-Journal (Louisville, KY), May 28, 1897.
89 “Kentucky Could Set Cuba Free,” St. Louis Post-Dispatch, Feb. 22, 1897; reprinted in “Kentucky Could Set Cuba Free: Controller Sturgeon Think Spain Easy Game: The Crittenden Massacre,” Courier-Journal (Louisville, KY), Mar. 10, 1897.
90 For his second speech, see “A Trumpet Blast For Cuba,” St. Louis Chronicle, reprinted in Courier-Journal (Louisville, KY), May 25, 1897.
91 “For the Freedom of Cuba,” Scranton Tribune, Sept. 17, 1895.
92 “Our Duty Toward Cuba,” New York Sun, Nov. 24, 1895.
93 Cleaver, Nick, Grover Cleveland’s New Foreign Policy: Arbitration, Neutrality, and the Dawn of American Empire (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014), 190–95.Google Scholar
94 For a sampling of the vast literature on what motivated McKinley to ask for the declaration of war, see Lewis L. Gould, The Spanish-American War and President McKinley (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1982); Offner, John, An Unwanted War: The Diplomacy of the United States and Spain (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), 39–40 Google Scholar; Hoganson, Kristin L., Fighting for American Manhood: How Gender Politics Provoked the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1998), 99–106 Google Scholar; Morgan, H. Wayne, McKinley, William and America, His, rev. ed. (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 2003), 284–87Google Scholar; McCartney, Power and Progress, 113–30; Miller, Bonnie M., From Liberation to Conquest: The Visual and Popular Cultures of the Spanish American War of 1898 (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2011), 86–88 Google Scholar.
95 “Disaster to the Maine not an Isolated Incident,” Chicago Daily Tribune, Mar. 6, 1898.
96 “War Heroes on Deck: Men Who Fought Under Both Flags,” Hamilton County (Indiana) Ledger, Apr. 8, 1898.
97 “Spain’s Bloody Cuban Record,” Seattle Post-Intelligencer, Mar. 31, 1898; See also “He Gave Up His Life: Governor Crittenden’s Brother Shot to Death by Spaniards in Cuba Many Years Ago,” Arkansas Democrat (Little Rock, AK), Mar. 3, 1898. The subtitle of the article was “Story of the Death of an Early Martyr to the Cuban Cause—Will the Present Time Bring Revenge?”; “The American Spirit,” Washington Times (Washington, D.C.), Apr. 10, 1898; “An Early Cuban Martyr: A Bit of the History of Cuba’s Interminable Struggle,” Larned (Kansas) Chronoscope, Feb. 25, 1898.
98 “Spain Scored by Speakers at the Jenkins Meeting,” Pittsburgh Daily Post, Mar. 31, 1898.
99 “Kentucky: Gave Martyrs to the Early Cuban Cause,” Courier-Journal (Louisville, KY), Mar. 16, 1898.
100 “The Situation and the Obligation,” Courier-Journal (Louisville, KY), Mar. 28, 1898.
101 See “Literary Items,” Boston Evening Transcript, Apr. 27, 1898.
102 Roche, James Jeffrey, “The Sailor Ghosts,” in Spanish-American War Songs: A Completed Collection of Newspaper Verse During the Recent War with Spain , ed. Witherbee, Sidney A. (Detroit, MI: Sidney A. Witherbee, 1898): 778–79Google Scholar.
103 Roche, “The Sailor Ghosts,” 779.
104 “The Free Flag of Cuba: An Invasion From This Country in 1851,” Leader-Democrat (Springfield, MO), Jun. 18, 1898; Fannie Brigham Ward, “The Tragedy of Cuba: Efforts to Break the Spanish Hold,” New Era (Lancaster, PA), May 21, 1898; “A Brief History of Cuba,” Belleville (Kansas) Telescope, Jun. 2, 1898; “Years of Cuban Turmoil,” New York Sun, May 11, 1898; “It had to Come,” Nashville American, reprinted in Washington Post, May 18, 1898.
105 “‘Remember Crittenden:’ New Battle Cry for a New Kentucky Regiment of Volunteers,” Evening Bulletin (Maysville, KY), Apr. 25, 1898.
106 The Crittenden Memoirs (New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1936), compiled by Henry Huston Crittenden, 521–22. Crittenden’s mother, Anna Maria Allen, had eight children with Henry Crittenden before he passed away in 1834. She remarried David R. Murray, also of Kentucky, who became a father to the extended Crittenden-Murray family.
107 “Savage: Butchery of Crittenden Recalled By His Step Brother,” Daily Leader (Lexington, KY), Jul. 14, 1898.
108 Semi-Weekly Interior Journal (Stanford, KY), May 13, 1898.
109 “Revenge for Crittenden’s Death,” Daily Messenger (Owensboro, KY), Apr. 22, 1898.
110 “War Fever Epidemic: It is Afflicting People All Over This District,” Breckinridge News (Cloverport, KY), Apr. 27, 1898.
111 “Cuban: Events of Lasting Interest to Kentuckians,” Courier-Journal (Louisville, KY), May 24, 1898; see also “True Were All Those Stories of Spanish Butchery,” Courier-Journal (Louisville, KY), Apr. 12, 1898.
112 “Native Kentuckian: Tells Why Kentucky Soldiers Love to Fight Spaniards,” Daily Kentuckian (Hopkinsville, KY), Jul. 20, 1898.
113 “‘Remember Crittenden: The Battle Cry of the Kentuckians Who Will Fight For Cuba’s Freedom,” Boston Globe, Jul. 5, 1898.
114 “To Avenge the Death of William Crittenden: Half-Brother to the Famous Kentuckian Who Was Butchered By the Spaniards Anxious to be Sent to Havana,” Times (Philadelphia, PA), Aug. 7, 1898.
115 John Fox, Jr., “Volunteers in the Blue-Grass,” Harpers Weekly, Jun. 18, 1898.
116 J. Stoddard Johnston, “The Kentuckians in the Lopez Expedition,” Courier-Journal (Louisville, KY), Jan. 22, 1899; “Sons of Kentucky Enjoy The First Annual Banquet of their Society in St. Louis,” Courier-Journal (Louisville, KY), Jan. 4, 1899.
117 “Henry Watterson’s Welcome to Returning Kentuckians,” Courier-Journal (Louisville, KY), Jun. 14, 1906.
118 “Filson Club Enjoys Historical Paper: Account of Butchery of Crittenden and Party by Spaniards,” Courier-Journal (Louisville, KY), Apr. 4, 1905.
119 Quisenberry, Anderson C., Lopez’s Expeditions to Cuba, 1850 and 1851 (Louisville: J.P. Morton & Company, 1906), 3Google Scholar.
120 Quisenberry, Lopez’s Expeditions to Cuba, 5.
121 Quisenberry, Lopez’s Expeditions to Cuba, 74.
122 Quisenberry, Lopez’s Expeditions to Cuba, 93.
123 “Filson Club Enjoys Historical Paper: Account of Butchery of Crittenden and Party by Spaniards,” Courier-Journal (Louisville, KY), Apr. 4, 1905; Quisenberry, Lopez’s Expeditions to Cuba, 3.
124 Caldwell, Robert Granville, The Lopez Expeditions to Cuba, 1848-1851 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1915) 103 Google Scholar.
125 “Answers to Questions,” Courier-Journal (Louisville, KY), Apr. 2, 1916.
126 “The Frightful Execution of Fifty Americans in Havana—Horrible Scenes—Insult to the American Flag—Firing into the Steamer Falcon,” New York Herald, Aug. 22, 1851.