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Development and Evaluation of the Trauma Bonding Scale for Adults© in the Context of Sex Trafficking

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Abstract

The devastating impacts of trauma bonding on survivors of sex trafficking have been repeatedly observed by researchers and practitioners alike. Trauma bonding hinders survivors from exiting exploitive environments and facilitates a toxic cycle of repeated exploitation. Despite empirical evidence of trauma bonding among survivors of sex trafficking, no measure of trauma bonding in the context of sex trafficking has been developed or evaluated. Given this need, the current study develops and evaluates a measure of trauma bonding for young adults in the context of sex trafficking. The study involved item development and modification, pretesting of the items, survey administration, scale development using exploratory factor analysis, and lastly, scale evaluation using confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling. Analysis of the survey data from 619 young adults indicated that the Trauma Bonding Scale for Adults© is a harmonious measure of trauma bonding with strong internal consistency and concurrent criterion validity. Implications related to scale use by researchers and clinicians are discussed.

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Notes

  1. Qualtrics administers an array of surveys, including surveys on topics related to marketing, politics, and current affairs using a panel of U.S. adults who have “opted-in” or agreed to complete online surveys in exchange for earning points toward vouchers for gift cards or customer award points (Qualtrics XM, 2022).

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Funding

Funded by the University of South Florida 2020 Dr. Kathleen Moore Faculty Excellence Award.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Criminology, University of South Florida, 140 Seventh Ave. South, HWH 236B, St. Petersburg, FL, 33701, USA

    Joan A. Reid

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  1. Joan A. Reid
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Correspondence to Joan A. Reid.

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Appendix 1

Appendix 1

Trauma Bonding Scale for Adults ©

Directions: Below is a list of reactions that people sometimes have in response to a very stressful experience or stressful relationship. Please read each item carefully and then select the response that best indicates how much or how often the item applied to you in the past month.

[Response options: 1 – “not at all”; 2 – “a little bit”; 3 – “moderately”; 4 – “quite a lot”; 5 – “extremely]

  1. 1.

    Thinking about people who have hurt you (emotionally or physically) in the past

  2. 2.

    Feeling stuck in an unhealthy relationship

  3. 3.

    Trying to be understood by people who don't care about you

  4. 4.

    Keeping secrets for people who have hurt you

  5. 5.

    Trying hard to help people who have hurt you

  6. 6.

    Feeling loyal to people who have betrayed you

  7. 7.

    Staying in a relationship longer than you should

  8. 8.

    Wanting to be liked by people who take advantage of you

  9. 9.

    Using self-harming behavior (cutting, burning, etc.)

  10. 10.

    Being attracted to dangerous (hurtful, threatening or violent) people

  11. 11.

    Tolerating lots of pain (emotional or physical) caused by others

  12. 12.

    Trusting people who are untrustworthy

  13. 13.

    Covering up, defending, or explaining a relationship

  14. 14.

    Feeling drawn to people who you know will cause you emotional or physical pain

  15. 15.

    Feeling unable to end bad relationships

  16. 16.

    Continuing to contact someone who has hurt you

  17. 17.

    Feeling unworthy or unlovable because of your past experiences

  18. 18.

    Feeling guilty about your past behavior

  19. 19.

    Allowing certain people to take advantage of you

  20. 20.

    Missing people who have hurt you or used you

  21. 21.

    Helping those who harm you

  22. 22.

    Ignoring destructive, exploitative or degrading behavior of others

  23. 23.

    Keeping secrets about someone's bad behavior because the person is important to you

  24. 24.

    Feeling that life is not worth living without a relationship with a certain person

  25. 25.

    Giving up people or things you love to stay in a relationship

  26. 26.

    Risking your life to stay in a relationship

  27. 27.

    Repeatedly fighting when there is no purpose and nothing gets resolved

  28. 28.

    Struggling to detach from someone even though you do not trust, like or care for the person

  29. 29.

    Staying in a relationship with a person who others think is dangerous

  30. 30.

    Feeling physically ill when you think of ending a relationship

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Reid, J.A. Development and Evaluation of the Trauma Bonding Scale for Adults© in the Context of Sex Trafficking. Am J Crim Just 48, 945–966 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-023-09731-x

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