Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Psychometric Properties of Two Independent Measures Evaluating Uncertainty and Ambiguity

  • Published:
Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Although uncertainty and ambiguity have been used interchangeably within the anxiety literature, no studies have directly compared the psychometric properties and predictive utility of two commonly used scales to assess these constructs, the Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale (IUS) and the Tolerance of Ambiguity Scale (TOA). Furthermore, previous findings of the individual scales have been inconsistent regarding their factor structure and potential clinical utility. Therefore, the current study aims to independently evaluate the factor structure of the IUS and TOA utilizing exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. Additionally, predictive utility of the scales was evaluated with correlation and regression analyses. Data were collected across 3 studies. Results suggest two-factor solutions provide the best-fitting models for both scales; however, these findings differ from previous studies. The IUS and its subscales provide greater predictive utility for anxiety and related areas of psychopathology compared to the TOA, suggesting that the IUS and uncertainty may be more closely related to anxiety and related symptoms. Future studies should continue to examine the interconnected role of uncertainty and ambiguity within anxiety and other forms of psychopathology.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Publishing.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Bardi, A., Guerra, V. M., Sharadeh, G., & Ramdeny, D. (2009). Open- ness and ambiguity intolerance: Their differential relations to well- being in the context of an academic life transition. Personality and Individual Differences, 47, 219–223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2009.03.003

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., Ball, R., & Ranieri, W. (1996). Comparison of Beck Depression Inventories –IA and –II in psychiatric outpatients. Journal of Personality Assessment, 67, 588–597. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa6703_13

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benjamin, A. J., Riggio, R. E., & Mayes, B. T. (1996). Reliability and factor structure of Budner’s Tolerance for Ambiguity Scale. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 11, 625–632.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bentler, P. M. (1992). On the fit of models to covariances and methodology to the bulletin. Psychological Bulletin, 112(3), 400–404. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.112.3.400

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berenbaum, H., Bredemeier, K., & Thompson, R. J. (2008). Intolerance of uncertainty: Exploring its dimensionality and associations with need for cognitive closure, psychopathology, and personality. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 22, 117–125.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bhushan, L., & Amal, S. B. (1986). A situational test of intolerance of ambiguity. Psychologia: An International Journal of Psychology in the Orient, 29(4), 254–261.

    Google Scholar 

  • Birrell, M., & K., Wilkinson, A., & Freeston, M. (2011). Toward a definition of intolerance of uncertainty: A review of factor analytical studies of the Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale. Clinical Psychology Review, 31(7), 1198–1208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2011.07.009

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Borkovec, T. D. (1994). The nature, functions, and origins of worry. In G. Davey & F. Tallis (Eds.), Worrying: Perspectives on theory assessment and treatment (pp. 5–33). Wiley & Sons.

    Google Scholar 

  • Borkovec, T. D., Alcaine, O. M., & Behar, E. (2004). Avoidance theory of worry and generalized anxiety disorder. In R. Heimberg, C. Turk, & D. Mennin (Eds.), Generalized anxiety disorder: Advances in research and practice (pp. 77–108). Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bors, D. A., Gruman, J. A., & Shukla, S. (2010). Measuring tolerance of ambiguity: Item polarity, dimensionality, and criterion validity. European Review of Applied Psychology, 60(4), 239–245.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, T. A. (2015). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.

  • Budner, S. (1962). Intolerance of ambiguity as a personality variable. Journal of Personality, 30, 29–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buhr, K., & Dugas, M. J. (2002). The intolerance of uncertainty scale: Psychometric properties of the English version. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 931–945.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carleton, R. N. (2016). Into the unknown: A review and synthesis of contemporary models involving uncertainty. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 39, 30–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2016.02.007

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carleton, R. N., Norton, P. J., & Asmundson, G. J. G. (2007). Fearing the unknown: A short version of the Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 21(1), 105–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2006.03.014

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Comrey, A. L., & Lee, H. B. (1992). A first course in factor analysis. Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Costello, A. B., & Osborne, J. W. (2005). Best practices in exploratory factor analysis: Four recommendations for getting the most from your analysis. Practical Assessment, Research, & Evaluation, 10(7), 1–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Derryberry, D., & Reed, M. A. (2002). Anxiety-related attentional biases and their regulation by attentional control. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111(2), 225–236. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.111.2.22

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dugas, M. J., Gagnon, F., Ladouceur, R., & Freeston, M. H. (1998). Generalized anxiety disorder: A preliminary test of a conceptual model. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 36(2), 215–226. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(97)00070-3

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dugas, M. J., Gosselin, P., & Ladouceur, R. (2001). Intolerance of uncertainty and worry: Investigating specificity in a nonclinical sample. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 25, 551–558. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005553414688

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dugas, M. J., Ladouceur, R., Leger, E., Freeston, M. H., Langolis, F., Provencher, M. D., & Boisvert, J. M. (2003). Group cognitive behavioral therapy for generalized anxiety disorder: Treatment outcome and long-term follow-up. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71, 821–825. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.71.4.821

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dugas, M. J., & Koerner, N. (2005). Cognitive-behavioral treatment for generalized anxiety disorder: Current status and future directions. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 19, 61–68.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eysenck, M. W., & Derakshan, N. (2011). New perspectives in attentional control theory. Personality and Individual Differences, 50(7), 955–960. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.08.01

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flora, D. B., & Flake, J. K. (2017). The purpose and practice of exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis in psychological research: Decisions for scale development and validation. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 49(2), 78–88. https://doi.org/10.1037/cbs0000069

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frenkel-Brunswik, E. (1949). Intolerance of ambiguity as an emotional and perceptual personality variable. Journal of Personality, 18(1), 108–143. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1949.tb01236.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Freeston, M. H., Rheaume, J., Letarte, H., Dugas, M. J., & Ladouceur, R. (1994). Why do people worry? Personality and Individual Differences, 17, 791–802. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(94)90048-5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Furnham, A. (1994). A content, correlational and factor analytic study of four tolerance of ambiguity questionnaires. Personality and Individual Differences, 16(3), 403–410. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(94)90066-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gerlach, A. L., Andor, T., & Patzelt, J. (2008). The significance of intolerance of uncertainty in generalized anxiety disorder: Possible models and development of a German version of the intolerance of uncertainty scale. Zeitschrift Für Klinische Psychologie Und Psychotherapie, 37(3), 190–199.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grenier, S., Barrette, A. M., & Ladouceur, R. (2005). Intolerance of Uncertainty and Intolerance of Ambiguity: Similarities and differences. Personality and Individual Differences, 39(3), 593–600. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2005.02.014

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Herman, J. L., Stevens, M. J., Bird, A., Mendenhall, M., & Oddou, G. (2010). The tolerance for ambiguity scale: Towards a more refined measure for international management research. International Journal of Intercultural Relations: IJIR, 34(1), 58–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2009.09.004

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Horn, J. L. (1965). A rationale and test for the number of factors in a factor analysis. Psychometrika, 30, 179–185. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02289447

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hutcheson, G. D., & Sofroniou, N. (1999). The Multivariate Social Scientist: Introductory Statistics Using Generalized Linear Models. Sage.

  • Judah, M. R., Grant, D. M., & Carlisle, N. B. (2016). The effects of self-focus on attentional biases in social anxiety: An ERP study. Cognitive, Affective, and Behavioral Neuroscience, 16, 393–405. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-015-0398-8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Judah, M. R., Grant, D. M., Mills, A. C., & Lechner, W. V. (2014). Factor structure and validation of the attentional control scale. Cognition & Emotion, 28(3), 433–451. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2013.835254

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaiser, H. F. (1974). An Index of Factorial Simplicity. Psychometrika, 39(1), 31–36. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02291575

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krohne, H. W. (1989). The concept of coping modes: Relating cognitive person variables to actual coping behaviour. Advances in Behaviour Research and Therapy, 11, 235–248. https://doi.org/10.1016/0146-6402(89)90027-1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krohne, H. W. (1993). Vigilance and cognitive avoidance as concepts in coping research. In H. W. Krohne (Ed.), Attention and avoidance. Toronto: Hogrefe & Huber.

  • MacCallum, R. C., Widaman, K. F., Preacher, K. J., & Sehee, H. (2001). Sample size in factor analysis: The role of model error. Multivariate Behavioral Research., 36(4), 611–637.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McEvoy, P. M., & Mahoney, A. E. J. (2011). Achieving certainty about the structure of intolerance of uncertainty in a treatment-seeking sample with anxiety and depression. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 25, 112–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2010.08.010

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McEvoy, P. M., & Mahoney, A. E. J. (2012). To be sure, to be sure: Intolerance of uncertainty mediates symptoms of various anxiety disorders and depression. Behavior Therapy, 43, 533–545. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2011.02.007

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McEvoy, P. M., & Mahoney, A. E. J. (2013). Intolerance of uncertainty and negative metacognitive beliefs as transdiagnostic mediators of repetitive negative thinking in a clinical sample with anxiety disorders. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 27(2), 216–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2013.01.006

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McLain, D. L. (1993). The MSTAT-I: A new measure of an individual s tolerance of ambiguity. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 53(1), 183–189.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, T. J., Miller, M. L., Metzger, R. L., & Borkovec, T. D. (1990). Development and validation of the Penn State Worry Questionnaire. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 28(6), 487–495. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(90)90135-6

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Myers, J. R., Henderson-King, D. H., & Henderson-King, E. I. (1997). Facing technological risks: The importance of individual differences. Journal of Research in Personality, 31, 1–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neta, M., & Kim, M. J. (2022). Surprise as an emotion: A response to ortony. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 174569162211327–17456916221132789. https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916221132789

  • Norton, P. J. (2005). A psychometric analysis of the intolerance of uncertainty scale among four racial groups. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 19, 699–707.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Park, G., Vasey, M. W., Kim, G., Hu, D. D., & Thayer, J. F. (2016). Trait anxiety is associated with negative interpretations when resolving valence ambiguity of surprised faces. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 1164–1164. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01164

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rodriguez, M. G., Leon, R. C., Rovella, A. T., & Herrera, M. D. (2006). Adaptacion espanola de la escala de intolerancia hacia la incertidumbre: Procesos cognitivos, ansiedad y depresion. Psicologia y Salud, 16(2), 219–233.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sanchez, A., Everaert, J., De Putter, L. M., Mueller, S. C., & Koster, E. H. (2015). Life is … great! Emotional attention during instructed and uninstructed ambiguity resolution in relation to depressive symptoms. Biological Psychology, 109, 67–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2015.04.007

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saulnier, A., & N. P., Judah, M. R., Koscinski, B., Hager, N. M., Albanese, B., Knapp, A. A., & Schmidt, N. B. (2021). Attentional Control Moderates the Relations between Intolerance of Uncertainty and Generalized Anxiety Disorder and Symptoms. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 45(6), 1193–1201. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-021-10223-7

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt, U., Kusserow, T., & Rau, R. (2014). Uncertainty in the workplace: Examining role ambiguity and role conflict, and their link to depression-a meta-analysis. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 23(1), 91–106. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432X.2012.711523

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sexton, K., & Dugas, M. (2009). Defining distinct negative beliefs about uncertainty: Validating the factor structure of the Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale. Psychological Assessment, 21(176), 186. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015827

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sherrill, W. W. (2001). Tolerance of ambiguity among MD/MBA students: Implications for management potential. Journal of Continuing Education for Health Professionals, 21, 117–122. https://doi.org/10.1002/chp.1340210209

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spielberger, C. D., Gorsuch, R. L., Lushene, R., Vagg, P. R., & Jacobs, G. A. (1983). Manual for the state-trait anxiety scale. Consulting Psychologists Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, S., Zvolensky, M. J., Cox, B. J., Deacon, B., Heimberg, R. G., & Cardenas, S. J. (2007). Robust dimensions of anxiety sensitivity: Development and initial validation of the Anxiety Sensitivity Index-3. Psychological Assessment, 19(2), 176–188. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.19.2.176

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tynan, M. C. (2020). Multidimensional tolerance of ambiguity: Construct validity, academic success, and workplace outcomes. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.

  • Zarei, F. (2012). Can ambiguity tolerance/intolerance be a source of bias on C-tests? US–China Foreign Language, 10, 1010–1019.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, Oklahoma State University, 320 Psychology Building, Stillwater, OK, 74078, USA

    Kaitlyn M. Nagel, DeMond M. Grant, Burkhart J. Hahn, Danielle E. Deros & Ebony A. Walker

Authors
  1. Kaitlyn M. Nagel
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. DeMond M. Grant
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Burkhart J. Hahn
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Danielle E. Deros
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Ebony A. Walker
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kaitlyn M. Nagel.

Ethics declarations

Ethics Approval

Procedures were approved by the appropriate IRB and the research was conducted in accordance with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration.

Consent to Publish

The authors affirm that human research participants provided informed consent to publication of the aggregate data presented.

Conflicts of Interest

Kaitlyn M. Nagel, DeMond M. Grant, Burkhart J. Hahn, Danielle E. Deros, and Ebony A. Walker declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Experiment Participants

Informed consent was obtained from all participants included in the study.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Nagel, K.M., Grant, D.M., Hahn, B.J. et al. Psychometric Properties of Two Independent Measures Evaluating Uncertainty and Ambiguity. J Psychopathol Behav Assess 45, 964–977 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-023-10075-3

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-023-10075-3

Keywords

Search

Navigation