Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-m9kch Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-05-01T20:24:58.732Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

When Are Norms Prescriptive? Understanding and Clarifying the Role of Norms in Behavioral Ethics Research

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 September 2023

Tobey K. Scharding  and
Danielle E. Warren
Tobey K. Scharding
Affiliation:
Rutgers University, USA
Danielle E. Warren
Affiliation:
Rutgers University, USA
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Research on ethical norms has grown in recent years, but imprecise language has made it unclear when these norms prescribe “what ought to be” and when they merely describe behaviors or perceptions (“what is”). Studies of ethical norms, moreover, tend not to investigate whether participants were influenced by the prescriptive aspect of the norm; the studies primarily demonstrate, rather, that people will mimic the behaviors or perceptions of others, which provides evidence for the already well-substantiated social proof theory. In this review article, we delineate three streams of norms research in business ethics: behavioral, perceptual, and prescriptive. We argue that by properly categorizing norms, and designing studies to investigate when prescriptions, more than mere mimicry, improve ethical outcomes in organizations, researchers can enhance managers’ efforts to promote ethical outcomes in organizations.

Keywords

normsdescriptive normsprescriptive normssocial proofnaturalistic fallacy
Type
Article
Information
Business Ethics Quarterly , Volume 34 , Issue 2 , April 2024 , pp. 331 - 364
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2023. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Society for Business Ethics

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Alcott, H., & Mullainathan, S. (2010). Behavior and energy policy. Science, 327(5970): 1204–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alzola, M. 2015. Virtuous persons and virtuous actions in business ethics and organizational research. Business Ethics Quarterly, 25(3): 287–318.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Amini, M., Ekstrom, M., Ellingsen, T., Johannesson, M., & Stromsten, F. 2017. Does gender diversity promote nonconformity? Management Science, 63(4): 1085–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Andersson, L. M., & Pearson, C. M. 1999. Tit for tat? The spiraling effect of incivility in the workplace. Academy of Management Review, 24(3): 452–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arkan, O., Nagpal, M., Scharding, T., & Warren, D. E. 2022. Don’t just trust your gut: The importance of normative deliberation to ethical decision-making at work. Journal of Business Ethics. DOI: 10.1007/s10551-022-05221-y.Google Scholar
Audi, R. 2010. The place of ethical theory in business ethics. In Brenkert, G. G. (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of business ethics: 46–69. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ayal, S., Celse, J., & Hochman, G. 2021. Crafting messages to fight dishonesty: A field investigation of the effects of social norms and watching eye cues on fare evasion. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 166: 9–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bailey, J. J., Nofsinger, J. R., & O’Neill, M. 2004. 401(k) retirement plan contribution decision factors: The role of social norms. Journal of Business and Management, 9(4): 327–44.Google Scholar
Bailey, W., & Spicer, A. 2007. When does national identity matter? Convergence and divergence in international business ethics. Academy of Management Journal, 50(6): 1462–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bear, A., & Knobe, J. 2017. Normality: Part descriptive, part prescriptive. Cognition, 167: 25–37.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beauchamp, T., Hare, R., & Biederman, B. 1984. Manipulative advertising [with commentaries]. Business and Professional Ethics Journal, 3(3/4): 1–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berenbaum, M. R. 2021. Signing at the beginning makes ethics salient and decreases dishonest self-reports in comparison to signing at the end: Retraction. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 118(38): Article e2115397118.Google Scholar
Beshears, J., Choi, J. J., Laibson, D., Madrian, B. C., & Milkman, K. L. 2015. The effect of providing peer information on retirement savings decisions. Journal of Finance, 70(3): 1161–201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bhanot, S. P. 2021. Isolating the effect of injunctive norms on conservation behavior: New evidence from a field experiment in California. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 163: 30–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blay, A. D., Gooden, E. S., Mellon, M. J., & Stevens, D. E. 2019. Can social norm activation improve audit quality? Evidence from an experimental audit market. Journal of Business Ethics, 156: 513–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brief, A. P., & Motowidlo, S. J. (1986). Prosocial organizational behaviors. Academy of Management Review, 11(4): 710–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Briscoe, F., Chin, M. K., & Hambrick, D. C. 2014. CEO ideology as an element of the corporate opportunity structure for social activists. Academy of Management Journal, 57(6): 1786–809.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Briscoe, F., & Murphy, C. 2012. Sleight of hand? Practice opacity, third-party responses, and the interorganizational diffusion of controversial practices. Administrative Science Quarterly, 557(4): 553–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brunner, M., & Ostermaier, A. 2019. Peer influence on managerial honesty: The role of transparency and expectations. Journal of Business Ethics, 154: 127–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carasco, E. F., & Singh, J. B. 2008. Human rights in global business ethics codes. Business and Society Review, 113(3): 347–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chang, E. H., Milkman, K. L., Chugh, D., & Akinola, M. 2019. Diversity thresholds: How social norms, visibility, and scrutiny relate to group composition. Academy of Management Journal, 62(1): 144–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, C. X., Nichol, J. E., & Zhou, F. H. 2017. The effect of incentive framing and descriptive norms on internal whistleblowing. Contemporary Accounting Research, 34: 1757–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cialdini, R. B. 2012. The focus theory of normative conduct. In van Lange, P., Kruglanski, A., & Higgins, T. (Eds.), Handbook of theories of social psychology: Vol. 2, 295–312. London: Sage.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cialdini, R. B., & Goldstein, N. J. 2004. Social influence: Compliance and conformity. Annual Review of Psychology, 55(4): 591–621.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cialdini, R. B., Reno, R. R., & Kallgren, C. A. 1990. A focus theory of normative conduct: Recycling the concept of norms to reduce littering in public places. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58(6): 1015–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dancy, J. 1995. In defense of thick concepts. Midwest Studies in Philosophy, 20: 263–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dannals, J. E., & Miller, D. T. 2017. Social norm perception in groups with outliers. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 146(9): 1342–59.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Groot, J. I., Abrahamse, W., & Jones, K. 2013. Persuasive normative messages: The influence of injunctive and personal norms on using free plastic bags. Sustainability, 5(5): 1829–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Los Reyes, G. Jr., Kim, T. W., & Weaver, G. R. 2017. Teaching ethics in business schools: A conversation on disciplinary differences, academic provincialism, and the case for integrated pedagogy. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 16(2): 314–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Derry, R., & Green, R. M. 1989. Ethical theory in business ethics: A critical assessment. Journal of Business Ethics, 8: 521–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deutsch, M., & Gerard, H. B. 1955. A study of normative and informational social influences upon individual judgment. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 51(3): 629–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Donaldson, T. 1985. Multinational decision-making: Reconciling international norms. Journal of Business Ethics, 4: 357–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Donaldson, T. 1989. The ethics of international business. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Donaldson, T. 1994. When integration fails: The logic of prescription and description in business ethics. Business Ethics Quarterly, 4(2): 157–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Donaldson, T., & Dunfee, T. W. 1994. Toward a unified conception of business ethics: Integrative social contract theory. Academy of Management Review, 19(2): 252–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eriksson, K., Strimling, P., & Coultas, J. C. 2015. Bidirectional associations between descriptive and injunctive norms. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 127: 59–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fayard, J. V., Bassi, A. K., Bernstein, D. M., & Roberts, B. W. 2009. Is cleanliness next to godliness? Dispelling old wives’ tales: Failure to replicate Zhong and Liljenquist (2006). Journal of Articles in Support of the Null Hypothesis, 6(2): 21–28.Google Scholar
Fiss, P. C., Kennedy, M. T., & Davis, G. F. 2012. How golden parachutes unfolded: Diffusion and variation of a controversial practice. Organization Science, 23(4): 1077–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flynn, F. J., & Wiltermuth, S. S. 2010. Who’s with me? False consensus, brokerage, and ethical decision making in organizations. Academy of Management Journal, 53(5): 1074–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frankfurt, H. G. 1971. Freedom of the will and the concept of a person. Journal of Philosophy, 68(1): 5–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frederick, W. C. 1991. The moral authority of transnational corporate codes. Journal of Business Ethics, 10: 165–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Giebelhausen, M., Lawrence, B., & Chun, H. H. 2021. Doing good while behaving badly: Checkout charity process mechanisms. Journal of Business Ethics, 172: 133–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gino, F., Ayal, S., & Ariely, D. 2009. Contagion and differentiation in unethical behavior: The effect of one bad apple on the barrel. Psychological Science, 20(3): 393–98.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldstein, N. J., & Cialdini, R. B. 2007. Using social norms as a lever of social influence. In Pratkanis, A. R. (Ed.), Frontiers of social psychology: The science of social influence—advances and future progress: 167–91. New York: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Goldstein, N., Cialdini, R. B., & Griskevicious, V. 2008. A room with a viewpoint: Using norm-based appeals to motivate conservation behaviors in a hotel setting. Journal of Consumer Research, 35(3): 472–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldstein, N., Griskevicious, V., & Cialdini, R. B. 2011. Reciprocity by proxy: A novel influence strategy for stimulating cooperation. Administrative Science Quarterly, 56(3): 441–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goncalo, J. A., Chatman, J. A., Duguid, M. M., & Kennedy, J. A. 2015. Creativity from constraint? How the political correctness norm influences creativity in mixed-sex work groups. Administrative Science Quarterly, 60(1): 1–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goodpaster, K. E. 1985. Business ethics, ideology, and the naturalistic fallacy. Journal of Business Ethics, 4: 227–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gunia, B. C., Wang, L., Huang, L. I., Wang, J., & Murnighan, J. K. 2012. Contemplation and conversation: Subtle influences on moral decision making. Academy of Management Journal, 55(1): 13–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hallsworth, M., List, J. A., Metcalfe, R. D., & Vlaev, I. 2017. The behavioralist as tax collector: Using natural field experiments to enhance tax compliance. Journal of Public Economics, 148: 14–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harris, J. D., & Freeman, R. E. 2008. The impossibility of the separation thesis: A response to Joakim Sandberg. Business Ethics Quarterly, 18(4): 541–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hartman, E. M. 2008. Reconciliation in business ethics: Some advice from Aristotle. Business Ethics Quarterly, 18(2): 253–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hartman, L., Shaw, B., & Stevenson, R. 2003. Exploring the ethics and economics of global labor standards: A challenge to integrated social contract theory. Business Ethics Quarterly, 13(2): 193–220.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hofenk, D., van Birgelen, M., Bloemer, J., & Semeijn, J. 2019. How and when retailers’ sustainability efforts translate into positive consumer responses: The interplay between personal and social factors. Journal of Business Ethics, 156: 473–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horne, C., & Mollborn, S. 2020. Norms: An integrated framework. Annual Review of Sociology, 46(1): 467–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hsieh, N. H. 2006. Voluntary codes of conduct for multinational corporations: Coordinating duties of rescue and justice. Business Ethics Quarterly, 16(2): 119–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hume, D. 1738. A treatise of human nature: Being an attempt to introduce the experimental method of reasoning into moral subjects. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hurka, T. 2005. Proportionality in the morality of war. Philosophy and Public Affairs, 33(1): 34–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jackson, K. 2000. Systematizing norms: Toward a moral jurisprudence theory of business ethics. Business Ethics Quarterly, 10(2): 451–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jacobson, R. P., Marchiondo, L. A., Jacobson, K. J. L., & Hood, J. N. 2020. The synergistic effect of descriptive and injunctive norm perceptions on counterproductive work behaviors. Journal of Business Ethics, 162: 191–209.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jamal, K., & Bowie, N. E. 1995. Theoretical considerations for a meaningful code of professional ethics. Journal of Business Ethics, 14: 703–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, T. M. 1991. Ethical decision making by individuals in organizations: An issue-contingent model. Academy of Management Review, 16(2): 366–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kalantari, S. A., & Luntley, M. 2013. On the logic of aiming at truth. Analysis, 73(3): 419–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaptein, M. 2011. Toward effective codes: Testing the relationship with unethical behavior. Journal of Business Ethics, 99: 233–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaptein, M., & Schwartz, M. S. 2008. The effectiveness of business codes: A critical examination of existing studies and the development of an integrated research model. Journal of Business Ethics, 77: 111–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kay, A. C., Gaucher, D., Peach, J. M., Laurin, K., Friesen, J., Zanna, M. P., & Spencer, S. J. 2009. Inequality, discrimination, and the power of the status quo: Direct evidence for a motivation to see the way things are as the way they should be. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97(3): 421–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kelly, K., & Murphy, P. R. 2021. Reducing accounting aggressiveness with general ethical norms and decision structure. Journal of Business Ethics, 170: 97–113.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kim, T. W., Monge, R., & Strudler, A. 2015. Bounded ethicality and the principle that “ought” implies “can.” Business Ethics Quarterly, 25(3): 341–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koehn, D. 2020. A virtue ethics critique of ethical dimensions of behavioral economics. Business and Society Review, 125(2): 241–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kolodny, N. 2005. Why be rational? Mind, 114(455): 509–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Korsgaard, C. 1996. The sources of normativity. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lau, V. P., & Wong, Y. Y. 2009. Direct and multiplicative effects of ethical dispositions and ethical climates on personal justice norms: A virtue ethics perspective. Journal of Business Ethics, 90: 279–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liljenquist, K., Zhong, C. B., & Galinsky, A. D. 2010. The smell of virtue: Clean scents promote reciprocity and charity. Psychological Science, 21(3): 381–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lückerath-Rovers, M., & De Bos, A. 2011. Code of conduct for non-executive and supervisory directors. Journal of Business Ethics, 100: 465–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacCoun, R. J. 2012. The burden of social proof: Shared thresholds and social influence. Psychological Review, 119(2): 345–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MacCoun, R. J. 2015. Balancing evidence and norms in cultural evolution. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 129: 93–104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marquis, C., Toffel, M. W., & Zhou, Y. 2016. Scrutiny, norms, and selective disclosure: A global study of greenwashing. Organization Science, 27(2): 483–504.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCarthy, D. J., & Puffer, S. M. 2008. Interpreting the ethicality of corporate governance decisions in Russia: Utilizing integrative social contracts theory to evaluate the relevance of agency theory norms. Academy of Management Review, 33(1): 11–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mele, A. R., & Moser, P. K. 1994. Intentional action. Nous, 28(1): 39–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Melnyk, V., van Herpen, E., Fischwer, A. R. H., & van Trijp, H. C. M. 2013. Regulatory fit effects for injunctive versus descriptive social norms: Evidence from the promotion of sustainable products. Marketing Letters, 24: 191–203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, D. T., & Prentice, D. A. 2016. Changing norms to change behavior. Annual Review of Psychology, 67: 339–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mishra, M., Ghosh, K., & Sharma, D. 2022. Unethical pro-organizational behavior: A systematic review and future research agenda. Journal of Business Ethics, 179: 63–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mohliver, A. 2019. How misconduct spreads: Auditors’ role in the diffusion of stock-option backdating. Administrative Science Quarterly, 64(2): 310–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Molenmaker, W. E., de Kwaadsteniet, E. W., & van Dijk, E. 2014. On the willingness to costly reward cooperation and punish non-cooperation: The moderating role of type of social dilemma. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 125(2): 175–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moore, G. E. 1903. Principia ethica. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Morris, W. M., Hong, Y., Chiu, C., & Liu, Z. 2015. Normology: Integrating insights about social norms to understand cultural dynamics. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 129: 1–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mun, E., & Jung, J. 2018. Change above the glass ceiling: Corporate social responsibility and gender diversity in Japanese firms. Administrative Science Quarterly, 63(2): 409–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O’Reilly, C. A., & Chatman, J. 1986. Organizational commitment and psychological attachment: The effects of compliance, identification, and internalization on prosocial behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71(3): 492–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Putnam, H. 2002. The collapse of the fact/value dichotomy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Rao, H., Greve, H. R., & Davis, G. F. 2001. Fool’s gold: Social proof in the initiation and abandonment of coverage of Wall Street analysts. Administrative Science Quarterly, 46(3): 502–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ravenda, D., Argilés-Bosch, J. M., & Valencia-Silva, M. M. 2015. Labor tax avoidance and its determinants: The case of Mafia firms in Italy. Journal of Business Ethics, 132: 41–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raz, J. 1986. The morality of freedom. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Rest, J. R. 1986. Moral development: Advances in research and theory. New York: Praeger.Google Scholar
Reynolds, S. J. 2006. Moral awareness and ethical predispositions: Investigating the role of individual differences in the recognition of moral issues. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(1): 233–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reynolds, S. 2008. Moral attentiveness: Who pays attention to the moral aspects of life? Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(5): 1027–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roos, P., Gelfand, M. J., Nau, D., & Lun, J. 2015. Societal threat and cultural variation in the strength of social norms: An evolutionary basis. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 129: 14–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenthal, S., & Buchholz, R. 2000. The empirical–normative split in business ethics: A pragmatic alternative. Business Ethics Quarterly, 10(2): 399–408.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rowan, J. 1997. Grounding hypernorms: Toward a contractarian theory of business ethics. Economics and Philosophy, 13(1): 107–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sah, S. 2019. Conflict of interest disclosure as a reminder of professional norms: Clients first! Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 154: 62–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Samland, J., & Waldmann, M. R. 2016. How prescriptive norms influence causal inferences. Cognition, 156: 164–76.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scherer, A. 2015. Can hypernorms be justified? Insights from a discourse–ethical perspective. Business Ethics Quarterly, 25(4): 489–516.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schultz, P. W., Nolan, J. M., Cialdini, R. B., Goldstein, N. J., & Griskevicius, V. 2007. The constructive, destructive and reconstructive power of social norms. Psychological Science, 18(5): 429–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sen, A. 1987. On ethics and economics. Malden, MA: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Setiya, K. 2008. Practical knowledge. Ethics, 118(3): 388–409.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sherif, M. 1936. The psychology of social norms. New York: Harper.Google Scholar
Shu, L. L., Mazar, N., Gino, F., Ariely, D., & Bazerman, M. H. 2012. Signing at the beginning makes ethics salient and decreases dishonest self-reports in comparison to signing at the end. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 109(38): 15197–5200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Singer, M. 1998. Paradigms linked: A normative-empirical dialogue about business ethics. Business Ethics Quarterly, 8(3): 481–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spicer, A., Dunfee, T., & Bailey, W. 2004. Does national context matter in ethical decision making? An empirical test of integrative social contract theory. Academy of Management Journal, 47(4): 610–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stansbury, J., & Barry, B. 2007. Ethics programs and the paradox of control. Business Ethics Quarterly, 17(2): 239–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sunstein, C. 2016. The council of psychological advisors. Annual Review of Psychology, 67: 713–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tepper, B. J., Henle, C. A., Lambert, L. S., Giacalone, R. A., & Duffy, M. K. 2008. Abusive supervision and subordinates’ organization deviance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(4): 721–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tost, L. P., & Johnson, H. H. 2019. The prosocial side of power: How structural power over subordinates can promote social responsibility. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 152: 25–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Treviño, L. K., Butterfield, K. D., & McCabe, D. L. 1998. The ethical context in organizations: Influences on employee attitudes and behaviors. Business Ethics Quarterly, 8(3): 447–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Treviño, L. K., & Weaver, G. R. 1994. Business ETHICS/BUSINESS ethics: One field or two? Business Ethics Quarterly, 4(2): 113–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Umphress, E. U., & Bingham, J. B. 2011. When employees do bad things for good reasons: Examining unethical pro-organizational behaviors. Organization Science, 22(3): 621–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van Oosterhout, J., Heugens, P. P., & Kaptein, M. 2006. The internal morality of contracting: Advancing the contractualist endeavor in business ethics. Academy of Management Review, 31(3): 521–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Väyrynen, P. 2021. Thick ethical concepts. In Zalta, E. N. (Ed.), The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2021/entries/thick-ethical-concepts/.Google Scholar
Victor, B., & Stephens, C. U. 1994. Business ethics: A synthesis of normative philosophy and empirical social science. Business Ethics Quarterly, 4(2): 145–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wang, L., Zhong, C. B., & Murnighan, J. K. 2014. The social and ethical consequences of a calculative mindset. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 125(1): 39–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Warren, D. E. 2003. Constructive and destructive deviance in organizations. Academy of Management Review, 28(4): 622–32.Google Scholar
Weaver, G. R., Reynolds, S. J., & Brown, M. E. 2014. Moral intuition: Connecting current knowledge to future organizational research and practice. Journal of Management, 40(1): 100–129.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weaver, G. R., & Treviño, L. K. 1994. Normative and empirical business ethics: Separation, marriage of convenience, or marriage of necessity? Business Ethics Quarterly, 4(2): 129–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilkinson, T. M. 2013. Nudging and manipulation. Political Studies, 61(2): 341–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, B. 1985. Ethics and the limits of philosophy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Windsor, D. 2004. The development of international business norms. Business Ethics Quarterly, 14(4): 729–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Witt, M. A., Fainshmidt, S., & Aguilera, R. V. 2021. Our board, our rules: Noncomformity to global corporate governance norms. Administrative Science Quarterly, 67(1): 131–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wu, S. J., & Paluck, E. L. 2021. Designing nudges for the context: Golden coin decals nudge workplace behavior in China. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 163: 43–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhong, C. B. 2011. The ethical dangers of deliberate decision making. Administration Science Quarterly, 56(1): 1–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhong, C. B., & Liljenquist, K. 2006. Washing away your sins: Threatened morality and physical cleansing. Science, 313(5792): 1451–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed