Abstract
The inclusion of starchy plants as a staple in prehistoric diets reveals the intricacies of local economies, evolution of crop cultivation and culinary transitions, yet the preservation of clearly identifiable plant remains in archaeological material is often very limited. To tackle this issue, we propose a multi-methodological approach for identifying starchy plant remains from the pre-Viking Age (ad 550–800) settlement site of Pada, in the northern coastal regions of Estonia. Plant microfossil analysis, bulk isotope analysis using elemental analysis-isotope ratio mass spectrometry and lipid residue analysis using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry were combined and applied to 24 food crusts from pottery excavated from the Pada settlement. The multi-methodological data were further compared and correlated by correspondence analysis (CA). Our results demonstrate the considerable consumption of C3 cereals (Hordeum and Triticum, barley and wheat), sometimes mixed with animal products in remains from settlement contexts at Pada, yet there is no evidence for the consumption of C4 cereals such as Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) in this region. CA confirms consistency within our multi-proxy data and distinguishes major “culinary groups” in our samples based on their main compositional elements.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Bailly L, Adam P, Charrié A, Connan J (2016) Identification of alkyl guaiacyl dehydroabietates as novel markers of wood tar from Pinaceae in archaeological samples. Org Geochem 100:80–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orggeochem.2016.07.009
Ball TB, Gardner JS, Anderson N (1999) Identifying inflorescence phytoliths from selected species of wheat (Triticum monococcum, T. dicoccon, T. dicoccoides, and T. aestivum) and barley (Hordeum vulgare and H. spontaneum) (Gramineae). Am J Bot 86:1,615-1,623. https://doi.org/10.2307/2656798
Ball TB, Ehlers R, Standing MD (2009) Review of typologic and morphometric analysis of phytoliths produced by wheat and barley. Breed Sci 59:505–512. https://doi.org/10.1270/jsbbs.59.505
Barboni D, Bremond L, Bonnefille R (2007) Comparative study of modern phytolith assemblages from inter-tropical Africa. Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol Palaeoecol 246:454–470. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2006.10.012
Bondetti M, Chirkova SS, Lucquin A et al (2019) Fruits, fish and the introduction of pottery in the Eastern European plain: lipid residue analysis of ceramic vessels from Zamostje 2. Quat Int 541:104–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2019.05.008
Bondetti M, Scott E, Courel B et al (2021) Investigating the formation and diagnostic value of ω-(o-alkylphenyl)alkanoic acids in ancient pottery. Archaeometry 63:594–608. https://doi.org/10.1111/arcm.12631
Bossard N, Jacob J, Le Milbeau C et al (2013) Distribution of miliacin (olean-18-en-3β-ol methyl ether) and related compounds in broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum) and other reputed sources: implications for the use of sedimentary miliacin as a tracer of millet. Org Geochem 63:48–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orggeochem.2013.07.012
Boyd M, Varney T, Surette C, Surette J (2008) Reassessing the northern limit of maize consumption in North America: stable isotope, plant microfossil, and trace element content of carbonized food residue. J Archaeol Sci 35:2,545-2,556. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2008.04.008
Bremond L, Alexandre A, Wooller MJ et al (2008) Phytolith indices as proxies of grass subfamilies on East African tropical mountains. Glob Planet Chang 61:209–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2007.08.016
Breu A, Rosell-Melé A, Heron C et al (2023) Resinous deposits in Early Neolithic pottery vessels from the northeast of the Iberian Peninsula. J Archaeol Sci Rep 47:103,744. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2022.103744
Chantran A, Cagnato C (2021) Boiled, fried, or roasted? Determining culinary practices in Medieval France through multidisciplinary experimental approaches. J Archaeol Sci Rep 35:102,715. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2020.102715
Chen S, Vahur S, Teearu A et al (2022) Classification of archaeological adhesives from Eastern Europe and Urals by ATR-FT-IR spectroscopy and chemometric analysis. Archaeometry 64:227–244. https://doi.org/10.1111/arcm.12686
Choy K, Yun HY, Lee J, Fuller BT, Shin KH (2021) Direct isotopic evidence for human millet consumption in the Middle Mumun period: implication and importance of millets in early agriculture on the Korean Peninsula. J Archaeol Sci 129:105,372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2021.105372
Colonese AC, Hendy J, Lucquin A et al (2017) New criteria for the molecular identification of cereal grains associated with archaeological artefacts. Sci Rep 7:6633. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-06390-x
Copley MS, Bland HA, Rose P, Horton M, Evershed RP (2005) Gas chromatographic, mass spectrometric and stable carbon isotopic investigations of organic residues of plant oils and animal fats employed as illuminants in archaeological lamps from Egypt. Analyst 130:860–871. https://doi.org/10.1039/b500403a
Crowther A (2012) The differential survival of native starch during cooking and implications for archaeological analyses: a review. Archaeol Anthropol Sci 4:221–235. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-012-0097-0
Danu M, Messager E, Carozza JM et al (2019) Phytolith evidence of cereal processing in the Danube delta during the Chalcolithic period. Quat Int 504:128–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2018.03.033
Dolbunova E, Lucquin A, McLaughlin TR et al (2023) The transmission of pottery technology among prehistoric European hunter-gatherers. Nat Hum Behav 7:171–183. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-022-01491-8
Egenberg IM, Aasen JAB, Holtekjølen AK, Lundanes E (2002) Characterisation of traditionally kiln produced pine tar by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. J Anal Appl Pyrol 62:143–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-2370(01)00112-7
Evershed RP (1999) Lipids as carriers of anthropogenic signals from prehistory. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 354:19–31. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.1999.0357
Evershed RP (2008a) Experimental approaches to the interpretation of absorbed organic residues in archaeological ceramics. World Archaeol 40:26–47. https://doi.org/10.1080/00438240801889373
Evershed RP (2008b) Organic residue analysis in archaeology: the archaeological biomarker revolution. Archaeometry 50:895–924. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4754.2008.00446.x
Evershed RP, Jerman K, Eglinton G (1985) Pine wood origin for pitch from the Mary Rose. Nature 314:528–530. https://doi.org/10.1038/314528a0
Evershed RP, Heron C, Goad LJ (1990) Analysis of organic residues of archaeological origin by high-temperature gas chromatography and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Analyst 115:1,339-1,342. https://doi.org/10.1039/AN9901501339
Evershed RP, Dudd SN, Copley MS et al (2002) Chemistry of archaeological animal fats. Acc Chem Res 35:660–668. https://doi.org/10.1021/ar000200f
Evershed RP, Copley MS, Dickson L, Hansel FA (2008) Experimental evidence for the processing of marine animal products and other commodities containing polyunsaturated fatty acids in pottery vessels. Archaeometry 50:101–113. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4754.2007.00368.x
Fraser RA, Bogaard A, Heaton T et al (2011) Manuring and stable nitrogen isotope ratios in cereals and pulses: towards a new archaeobotanical approach to the inference of land use and dietary practices. J Archaeol Sci 38:2,790-2,804. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2011.06.024
Fuller BT, Müldner G, Van Neer W, Ervynck A, Richards MP (2012) Carbon and nitrogen stable isotope ratio analysis of freshwater, brackish and marine fish from Belgian archaeological sites (1st and 2nd millennium AD). J Anal at Spectrom 27:807–820. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2ja10366d
Gao G, Jie D, Wang Y et al (2018) Phytolith reference study for identifying vegetation changes in the forest−grassland region of northeast China. Boreas 47:481–497. https://doi.org/10.1111/bor.12280
García-Granero JJ, Hatzaki E, Tsafou E et al (2021) From storage to disposal: a holistic microbotanical approach to domestic plant preparation and consumption activities in late Minoan Gypsades, Crete. J Archaeol Method Theory 28:307–331. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10816-020-09456-9
Ge Y, Lu H, Zhang J, Wang C, Gao X (2020) Phytoliths in inflorescence bracts: preliminary results of an investigation on common panicoideae plants in China. Front Plant Sci 10:1,736. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2019.01736
Gomes Barroso FR, dos Santos GV, Carvalho CE, Ledru MP, Favier C, Soares Araújo F, Bremond L (2021) Phytoliths from soil surfaces and water reservoirs of the Brazilian semi-arid Caatinga. J South Am Earth Sci 108:103,180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2021.103180
Grikpėdis M, Motuzaite Matuzeviciute G (2018) A review of the earliest evidence of agriculture in lithuania and the earliest direct AMS date on cereal. Eur J Archaeol 21:264–279. https://doi.org/10.1017/eaa.2017.36
Grikpėdis M, Motuzaite Matuzeviciute G (2020) From barley to buckwheat: Plants cultivated in the Eastern Baltic region until the 13th–14th century AD. In: Vanhanen S, Lagerås P (eds) Archaeobotanical studies of past plant cultivation in northern Europe. Barkhuis Publishing, Eelde, pp 155–170
Gu Y, Pearsall DM, Xie S, Yu J (2008) Vegetation and fire history of a Chinese site in southern tropical Xishuangbanna derived from phytolith and charcoal records from Holocene sediments. J Biogeogr 35:325–341. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2699.2007.01763.x
Hammann S, Cramp LJE (2018) Towards the detection of dietary cereal processing through absorbed lipid biomarkers in archaeological pottery. J Archaeol Sci 93:74–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2018.02.017
Hammann S, Cramp LJE, Whittle M, Evershed RP (2018) Cholesterol degradation in archaeological pottery mediated by fired clay and fatty acid pro-oxidants. Tetrahedron Lett 59:4,401-4,404. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tetlet.2018.10.071
Hansel FA, Copley MS, Madureira LAS, Evershed RP (2004) Thermally produced ω-(o-alkylphenyl)alkanoic acids provide evidence for the processing of marine products in archaeological pottery vessels. Tetrahedron Lett 45:2,999-3,002. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tetlet.2004.01.111
Hart JP, Matson RG (2009) The use of multiple discriminant analysis in classifying prehistoric phytolith assemblages recovered from cooking residues. J Archaeol Sci 36:74–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2008.07.011
He D, Simoneit BRT, Cloutier JB, Jaffé R (2018) Early diagenesis of triterpenoids derived from mangroves in a subtropical estuary. Org Geochem 125:196–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orggeochem.2018.09.005
Heron C, Craig OE (2015) Aquatic resources in foodcrusts: identification and implication. Radiocarbon 57:707–719. https://doi.org/10.2458/azu_rc.57.18454
Heron C, Craig OE, Luquin A et al (2015) Cooking fish and drinking milk? Patterns in pottery use in the southeastern Baltic, 3300–2400 cal BC. J Archaeol Sci 63:33–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2015.08.002
Heron C, Shoda S, Breu Barcons A et al (2016) First molecular and isotopic evidence of millet processing in prehistoric pottery vessels. Sci Rep 6:38,767. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep38767
Herrera-Gómez A, Canónico-Franco M, Ramos G (2005) Aggregate formation and segregation of maize starch granules cooked at reduced moisture conditions. Starch/stärke 57:301–309. https://doi.org/10.1002/star.200400289
Hiie S (2010) Finds of charred grain from Estonian hillforts. In: Bittmann F (ed) 15th conference of the international work group for Palaeoethnobotany–Wilhelmshaven, Germany, May 31–June 5, 2010: programme and abstracts. GeoUnion Alfred-Wegener-Stiftung, Berlin, p 136
Jacob J, Disnar J-R, Boussafir M et al (2005) Pentacyclic triterpene methyl ethers in recent lacustrine sediments (Lagoa do Caçó, Brazil). Org Geochem 36:449–461. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orggeochem.2004.09.005
Jacob J, Disnar JR, Bardoux G (2008) Carbon isotope evidence for sedimentary miliacin as a tracer of Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) in the sediments of Lake le Bourget (French Alps). Org Geochem 39:1,077-1,080. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orggeochem.2008.04.003
Jambrina-Enríquez M, Herrera-Herrera AV, Rodríguez de Vera C et al (2019) n-Alkyl nitriles and compound-specific carbon isotope analysis of lipid combustion residues from Neanderthal and experimental hearths: Identifying sources of organic compounds and combustion temperatures. Quat Sci Rev 222:105,899. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2019.105899
Jatczak K, Grynkiewicz G (2014) Triterpene sapogenins with oleanene skeleton: chemotypes and biological activities. Acta Biochim Pol 61:227–243. https://doi.org/10.18388/abp.2014_1890
Juhola T, Etu-Sihvola HSK, Näreoja T, Ruohonen J (2014) Starch analysis reveals starchy foods and food processing from finnish archaeological artefacts. Fennosc Archaeol 31:79–100
Juhola T, Henry AG, Kirkinen T, Laakkonen J, Väliranta M (2019) Phytoliths, parasites, fibers, and feathers from dental calculus and sediment from Iron Age Luistari cemetery, Finland. Quat Sci Rev 222:105,888. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.QUASCIREV.2019.105888
Koch BP, Souza Filho PWM, Behling H et al (2011) Triterpenols in mangrove sediments as a proxy for organic matter derived from the red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle). Org Geochem 42:62–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orggeochem.2010.10.007
Kohn MJ (2010) Carbon isotope compositions of terrestrial C3 plants as indicators of (paleo)ecology and (paleo)climate. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 107:19,691-19,695. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1004933107
Kriiska A (2009) The beginning of farming in the Eastern Baltic area. In: Dolukhanov PM, Sarson GR, Shukurov AM (eds) The East European plain on the eve of agriculture. Archaeopress, Oxford, pp 159–179
Kriiska A, Lang V, Mäesalu A, Tvauri A, Valk H (2020) Eesti ajalugu I. Eesti esiaeg. UT Institute of History and Archeology, Tartu
Kučera L, Peška J, Fojtík P et al (2019) First direct evidence of broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum) in Central Europe. Archaeol Anthropol Sci 11:4,221-4,227. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-019-00798-4
Landberg R, Kamal-Eldin A, Andersson A, Vessby B, Aman P (2008) Alkylresorcinols as biomarkers of whole-grain wheat and rye intake: plasma concentration and intake estimated from dietary records. Am J Clin Nutr 87:832–838. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/87.4.832
Lang V (2007) The Bronze and Early Iron Ages in Estonia. University of Tartu Press, Tartu. https://doi.org/10.26530/OAPEN_423939
Lang V (1996) Muistne Rävala. Muistised, kronoloogia ja maaviljelusliku asustuse kujunemine Loode-Eestis, eriti Pirita jõe alamjooksu piirkonnas, vols 1–2. Eesti Teaduste Akadeemia Kirjastus, Tallinn
Lange-Bertalot H, Hofmann G, Werum M, Cantonati M (2017) Freshwater benthic diatoms of Central Europe: over 800 common species used in ecological assessment. English edition with updated taxonomy and added species. Edited by Cantonati M, Kelly MG, Lange-Bertalot H. Koeltz Botanical Books, Oberreifenberg, Germany
Larsson M, Bergman J, Lagerås P (2019) Manuring practices in the first millennium AD in southern Sweden inferred from isotopic analysis of crop remains. PLoS ONE 14:e0215578. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0215578
Lentfer CJ, Boyd WE, Gojak D (1997) Hope farm windmill: phytolith analysis of cereals in early colonial Australia. J Archaeol Sci 24:841–856. https://doi.org/10.1006/jasc.1996.0164
Lightfoot E, Liu X, Jones MK (2013) Why move starchy cereals? A review of the isotopic evidence for prehistoric millet consumption across Eurasia. World Archaeol 45:574–623. https://doi.org/10.1080/00438243.2013.852070
Lõugas L (2001) Development of fishery during the 1st and 2nd millennia AD in the Baltic region. Est J Archaeol 5:128–147
Lu H, Zhang J, Wu N, Liu KB, Xu D, Li Q (2009) Phytoliths analysis for the discrimination of foxtail millet (Setaria italica) and common millet (Panicum miliaceum). PLoS ONE 4:e4448. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0004448
Lucejko JJ, La Nasa J, Porta F et al (2018) Long-lasting ergot lipids as new biomarkers for assessing the presence of cereals and cereal products in archaeological vessels. Sci Rep 8:3,935. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-22140-z
Luik H, Maldre L (2005) Bone and antler artefacts from the settlement site and cemetery of Pada in North Estonia. In: Luik H, Choyke AM, Batey CE, Lõugas L (eds) From hooves to horns, from mollusc to mammoth: manufacture and use of bone artefacts from prehistoric times to the present. Institute of History and Archaeology of the University of Tartu, Tartu, pp 263–276
Maldre L (2007) Faunal remains from the settlement site of Pada. Est J Archaeol 11:59–79
Miljan J, Kask Ü (2013) Pilliroog ja selle kasutamise võimalused. Eesti Maaülikool, Tartu
Miller MJ, Whelton HL, Swift JA et al (2020) Interpreting ancient food practices: stable isotope and molecular analyses of visible and absorbed residues from a year-long cooking experiment. Sci Rep 10:13,704. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-70109-8
Minkevičius K, Podėnas V, Urbonaitė-Ubė M, Ubis E, Kisielienė D (2020) New evidence on the southeast Baltic Late Bronze Age agrarian intensification and the earliest AMS dates of Lens culinaris and Vicia faba. Veget Hist Archaeobot 29:327–338. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00334-019-00745-2
Mirabaud S, Rolando C, Regert M (2007) Molecular criteria for discriminating adipose fat and milk from different species by NanoESI MS and MS/MS of their triacylglycerols: application to archaeological remains. Anal Chem 79:6,182-6,192. https://doi.org/10.1021/ac070594p
Mulholland SC (1989) Phytolith shape frequencies in North Dakota grasses: a comparison to general patterns. J Archaeol Sci 16:489–511. https://doi.org/10.1016/0305-4403(89)90070-8
Nakamura H (2019) Plant-derived triterpenoid biomarkers and their applications in paleoenvironmental reconstructions: chemotaxonomy, geological alteration, and vegetation reconstruction. Res Org Geochem 35:11–35. https://doi.org/10.20612/rog.35.2_11
Neumann K, Strömberg C, Ball T, Albert R, Vrydaghs L, Cummings L (2019) International committee for phytolith taxonomy (ICPT), international code for phytolith nomenclature (ICPN) 20. Ann Bot 24(2):189–199. https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcz064
Niinemets E, Saarse L, Poska A (2002) Vegetation history and human impact in the Parika area, Central Estonia. Proc Est Acad Sci Geol 51:241–258. https://doi.org/10.3176/geol.2002.4.04
Oras E, Tõrv M, Jonuks T et al (2018) Social food here and hereafter: Multiproxy analysis of gender-specific food consumption in conversion period inhumation cemetery at Kukruse, NE-Estonia. J Archaeol Sci 97:90–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2018.07.001
Pető Á, Gyulai F, Pópity D, Kenéz Á (2013) Macro- and micro-archaeobotanical study of a vessel content from a Late Neolithic structured deposition from southeastern Hungary. J Archaeol Sci 40:58–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2012.08.027
Pitts M (2019) The Roman object revolution: objectscapes and intra-cultural connectivity in northwest Europe. Amsterdam University Press, Amsterdam
Reber EA, Kerr MT, Whelton HL, Evershed RP (2019) Lipid Residues from low-fired pottery. Archaeometry 61:131–144. https://doi.org/10.1111/arcm.12403
Regert M, Rolando C (2002) Identification of archaeological adhesives using direct inlet electron ionization mass spectrometry. Anal Chem 74:965–975. https://doi.org/10.1021/ac0155862
Reimer PJ, Austin WEN, Bard E et al (2020) The IntCal20 northern hemisphere radiocarbon age calibration curve (0–55 cal kBP). Radiocarbon 62:725–757. https://doi.org/10.1017/RDC.2020.41
Roffet-Salque M, Dunne J, Altoft DT et al (2017) From the inside out: Upscaling organic residue analyses of archaeological ceramics. J Archaeol Sci Rep 16:627–640. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2016.04.005
Ross AB (2012) Present status and perspectives on the use of alkylresorcinols as biomarkers of wholegrain wheat and rye intake. J Nutr Metab 2012:462,967. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/462967
Ross AB, Kamal-Eldin A, Jung C, Shepherd MJ, Åman P (2001) Gas chromatographic analysis of alkylresorcinols in rye (Secale cereale L) grains. J Sci Food Agric 81:1,405-1,411. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.956
Rudall PJ, Prychid CJ, Gregory T (2014) Epidermal patterning and silica phytoliths in grasses: an evolutionary history. Bot Rev 80:59–71. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12229-014-9133-3
Saag L, Varul L, Scheib CL et al (2017) Extensive farming in Estonia started through a sex-biased migration from the steppe. Curr Biol 27:2,185-2,193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2017.06.022
Sammler S (2023) Eeltöötluse mõju söestunud kaun- ja teraviljade isotoopanalüüsidele: Iru linnamäe juhtumiuuring. University of Tartu, Tartu
Saul H, Madella M, Fischer A, Glykou A, Hartz S, Craig OE (2013) Phytoliths in pottery reveal the use of spice in European prehistoric cuisine. PLoS ONE 8:e70583. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0070583
Schüßler A, Walker C (2010) The glomeromycota: a species list with new families and new genera. Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh
Shoda S, Lucquin A, Sou CI et al (2018) Molecular and isotopic evidence for the processing of starchy plants in Early Neolithic pottery from China. Sci Rep 8:17,044. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-35227-4
Sillasoo Ü, Hiie S (2007) An archaeobotanical approach to investigating food of the Hanseatic period in Estonia. In: Karg S (ed) Medieval Food traditions in Northern Europe. National Museum of Denmark, Copenhagen, pp 73–96
Simoneit BRT, Rushdi AI, Bin Abas MR, Didyk BM (2003) Alkyl amides and nitriles as novel tracers for biomass burning. Environ Sci Technol 37:16–21. https://doi.org/10.1021/es020811y
Spataro M, Oras E, Lucquin A, Bērzinš V (2021) Hunter-fisher-gatherer pottery production and use at the Neolithic shell-midden of Riņņukalns, Latvia. Antiquity 95:1,446-1,463. https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2021.127
Stern B, Heron C, Corr L, Serpico M, Bourriau J (2003) Compositional variations in aged and heated pistacia resin found in Late Bronze Age Canaanite amphorae and bowls from Amarna. Egypt Archaeometry 45:457–469. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-4754.00121
Styring AK, Fraser RA, Arbogast RM et al (2015) Refining human palaeodietary reconstruction using amino acid δ15N values of plants, animals and humans. J Archaeol Sci 53:504–515. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2014.11.009
Tamla T (2008) Pada II linnamägi. - Eesti muinaslinnad, ed. Mäesalu A, Valk H (Muinasaja Teadus 20). Tartu Ülikooli ajaloo ja arheoloogia instituut, Tartu; Tallinna Ülikooli ajaloo instituudi arheoloogiaosakond, Tallinn
Tihase K (2007) Estonian vernacular architecture. Edited by Saron J. Tallinna Tehnikaülikooli Kirjastus, Tallinn
Tvauri A (2012) The migration period, pre-Viking Age, and Viking Age in Estonia. University of Tartu Press, Tartu. https://doi.org/10.26530/OAPEN_423944
Tvauri A, Vanhanen S (2016) The find of pre-Viking age charred grains from fort-settlement in Tartu. Est J Archaeol 20:33–53. https://doi.org/10.3176/arch.2016.1.02
Twiss PC (1992) Predicted world distribution of C3 and C4 grass phytoliths. In: Rapp G, Mulholland SC (eds) Phytolith systematics: emerging issues. Springer, New York, pp 113–128
Vanhanen S (2019) Prehistoric cultivation and plant gathering in Finland: an archaeobotanical study. University of Helsinki, Helsinki
Vasks A, Zariņa G, Legzdiņa D, Plankājs E (2021) New data on funeral customs and burials of the Bronze age Reznes cemetery in Latvia. Est J Archaeol 25:3–31
Vassar A (1939) Iru linnapära. In: Moora H (ed) Muistse Eesti linnused: 1936–1938 a uurimiste tulemused. Õpetatud Eesti Selts, Tartu, pp 53–100
Vignola C, Masi A, Balossi Restelli F et al (2017) δ13C and δ15N from 14C-AMS dated cereal grains reveal agricultural practices during 4300–2000 BC at Arslantepe (Turkey). Rev Palaeobot Palynol 247:164–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.revpalbo.2017.09.001
Vilkuna AM (2003) Financial management at Häme castle in the mid-sixteenth century (1539—about 1570). In: Mikkola T, Vilkuna AM (eds) At home within stone walls: life in the late medieval Häme castle. Suomen Keskiajan Arkeologian Seura, Turku, pp 15–132
Wagner T, Herrle JO (2015) C-isotopes. In: Harff J, Meschede M, Peterson S, Thiede J (eds) Encyclopedia of marine geosciences. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-6644-0
Whelton HL, Hammann S, Cramp LJE, Dunne J, Roffet-Salque M, Evershed RP (2021) A call for caution in the analysis of lipids and other small biomolecules from archaeological contexts. J Archaeol Sci 132:105,397. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2021.105397
Zohary D, Hopf M, Weiss E (2012) Domestication of Plants in the Old World: The origin and spread of domesticated plants in Southwest Asia, Europe, and the Mediterranean Basin, 4th edn. Oxford University Press, Oxford. https://doi.org/10.1093/ACPROF:OSOBL/9780199549061.001.0001
Zuloaga FO, Morrone O, Davidse G, Pennington SJ (2007) Classification and biogeography of Panicoideae (Poaceae) in the new world. Aliso J Syst Flor Bot 23:503–529. https://doi.org/10.5642/aliso.20072301.39
Acknowledgements
We wish to thank Ieva Grudzinska-Elsberga, who identified the diatoms and Anita Radini, who assisted with the identification of phytoliths and fungi. Our gratitude also belongs to Sirje Hiie, who helped with the selection and preliminary identification of the grain and legume samples from Iru hillfort. We are grateful to Shinya Shoda for sharing his experimental pottery samples used for cooking broomcorn millet and to Giedrė Motuzaitė Matuzevičiūtė Keen for archaeological millet samples. This research was supported by the Riksbankens Jubileumsfond (Pro Futura Scientia Fellowship) and a personal research grant (PSG492) from Eesti Teadusagentuur (ETAG, Estonian Research Council).
Funding
Funding was provided by Estonian Research Council (Grant No. PSG492) and Riksbankens Jubileumsfond.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
This study was designed by EO, IL and SC. Lipid residue extraction, GC (gas chromatogram) analysis and data interpretation were performed by SC with technical support of Siim Salmar. Plant microfossil analysis was done by KJ. Stable isotope analysis was carried out by Sandra Sammler and MAB and the data interpretation was done by SC. Correspondence analysis of multi-proxy data was conducted by SC and JAM. The first draft of the manuscript was written by SC, KJ and JAM with the contribution of EO and IL for the archaeological background and analytical chemistry. Images were edited by SC, KJ and JAM. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript.x
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.
Additional information
Communicated by F. Antolín.
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Chen, S., Johanson, K., Matthews, J.A. et al. Multi-proxy analysis of starchy plant consumption: a case study of pottery food crusts from a Late Iron Age settlement at Pada, northeast Estonia. Veget Hist Archaeobot 33, 407–423 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00334-023-00950-0
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00334-023-00950-0