Abstract
Autonomous robots can use path planning techniques to determine the optimal trajectory during the mission. These techniques can be classified as classical, meta heuristic, or machine learning-based. The choice of each technique for a mission depends on its specific requirements, such as finding the shortest path, completing the mission in the minimum time, or/and exploring the environment, among others. Therefore, the path planning algorithms analysis is essential to assist in selecting the appropriate technique. In the literature, the path planning algorithms are typically compared within the same category, and a general analysis is conducted to decide which technique to employ for a particular mission. However, this paper aims to delve deeper into the behavior and performance of these three path planning techniques. The analysis is based on simulations in various environments to understand how each technique behaves and performs, specifically focusing on computation costs, time, and path length efficiency.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The code for this paper is open source and can be found in https://github.com/lidiaxp/plannie.
References
Almubarak, Y., Schmutz, M., Perez, M., Shah, S., Tadesse, Y.: Kraken: a wirelessly controlled octopus-like hybrid robot utilizing stepper motors and fishing line artificial muscle for grasping underwater. Int. J. Intell. Robot. Appl. 6(3), 1–21 (2022)
Amiri, R., Mehrpouyan, H., Fridman, L., Mallik, R., Nallanathan, A., Matolak, D.: A machine learning approach for power allocation in hetnets considering qos. In: 2018 IEEE International Conference on Communications (ICC), 03 (2018)
Basiri, A., Mariani, V., Silano, G., Aatif, M., Iannelli, L., Glielmo, L.: A survey on the application of path-planning algorithms for multi-rotor uavs in precision agriculture. J. Navig. 75, 1–20 (2022)
Becerra, I., Yervilla-Herrera, H., Antonio, E., Murrieta-Cid, R.: On the local planners in the rrt* for dynamical systems and their reusability for compound cost functionals. IEEE Trans. Robot. 38, 1–38 (2021)
Breen, J., Eichert, P., Hunthausen, W., Logan, B., Ludwick, L., Moodry, C., Thatcher, T., Winfield, N., Yocum, H., Mohamed Dr, M.: Early warning model of dangerous road pavement condition using uav. Digital Commons Montana Tech (2020)
Carrio, A., Sampedro, C., Rodriguez-Ramos, A., Campoy, P.: A review of deep learning methods and applications for unmanned aerial vehicles. J. Sens. 2017 (2017)
Cetin, O., Yilmaz, G.: Real-time autonomous uav formation flight with collision and obstacle avoidance in unknown environment. J. Intell. Robot. Syst. 84(1–4), 415–433 (2016)
Chen, M., Zhu, D.: Real-time path planning for a robot to track a fast moving target based on improved Glasius bio-inspired neural networks. Int. J. Intell. Robot. Appl. 3(2), 186–195 (2019)
Chen, G., Luo, N., Liu, D., Zhao, Z., Liang, C.: Path planning for manipulators based on an improved probabilistic roadmap method. Robot. Comput. Integr. Manuf. 72, 102196 (2021)
Choset, H.M., Hutchinson, S., Lynch, K.M., Kantor, G., Burgard, W., Kavraki, L.E., Thrun, S.: Principles of Robot Motion: Theory, Algorithms, and Implementation. MIT press, Cambridge (2005)
Dewangan, R.K., Shukla, A., Godfrey, W.W.: Three dimensional path planning using grey wolf optimizer for uavs. Appl. Intell. 49(6), 2201–2217 (2019)
Dive, R.: UAV Drone Market Report (2019). https://www.researchdive.com/8348/unmanned-aerial-vehicle-uav-drones-market. Accessed 10 Nov 2021
Dokeroglu, T., Sevinc, E., Kucukyilmaz, T., Cosar, A.: A survey on new generation metaheuristic algorithms. Comput. Ind. Eng. 137, 106040 (2019)
Duchoň, F., Babinec, A., Kajan, M., Beňo, P., Florek, M., Fico, T., Jurišica, L.: Path planning with modified a star algorithm for a mobile robot. Procedia Eng. 96, 59–69 (2014)
Faessler, M., Franchi, A., Scaramuzza, D.: Differential flatness of quadrotor dynamics subject to rotor drag for accurate tracking of high-speed trajectories. IEEE Robot. Autom. Lett. 3(2), 620–626 (2017)
Fritsch, F.N., Carlson, R.E.: Monotone piecewise cubic interpolation. SIAM J. Numer. Anal. 17(2), 238–246 (1980)
Hayat, S., Yanmaz, E., Brown, T.X., Bettstetter, C.: Multi-objective uav path planning for search and rescue. In: 2017 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA). IEEE, pp. 5569–5574 (2017)
Hsiao, Y.-T., Chuang, C.-L., Chien, C.-C.: Ant colony optimization for best path planning. In: IEEE International Symposium on Communications and Information Technology, 2004. ISCIT 2004., vol. 1, pp. 109–113 (2004)
Hu, Y., Yang, S.X.: A knowledge based genetic algorithm for path planning of a mobile robot. In: IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, 2004. Proceedings. ICRA’04. 2004, vol. 5. IEEE, pp. 4350–4355 (2004)
Huang, K.-C., Lian, F.-L., Chen, C.-T., Wu, C.-H., Chen, C.-C.: A novel solution with rapid voronoi-based coverage path planning in irregular environment for robotic mowing systems. Int. J. Intell. Robot. Appl. 5(4), 558–575 (2021)
Jaillet, L., Cortés, J., Siméon, T.: Sampling-based path planning on configuration-space costmaps. IEEE Trans. Rob. 26(4), 635–646 (2010)
Kaelbling, L.P., Littman, M.L., Moore, A.W.: Reinforcement learning: A survey. Journal of artificial intelligence research 4, 237–285 (1996)
Kaipa, K.N., Ghose, D.: Glowworm Swarm Optimization: Theory, Algorithms, and Applications, vol. 698. Springer, Berlin (2017)
Karaman, S., Frazzoli, E.: Sampling-based algorithms for optimal motion planning. Int. J. Robot. Res. 30(7), 846–894 (2011)
Kicki, P., Gawron, T., Skrzypczyński, P.: A self-supervised learning approach to rapid path planning for car-like vehicles maneuvering in urban environment (2020). arXiv preprint arXiv:2003.00946
Koren, Y., Borenstein, J.: Potential field methods and their inherent limitations for mobile robot navigation. In: Proceedings. 1991 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, vol. 2, pp. 1398–1404 (1991)
Krell, E., Sheta, A., Balasubramanian, A.P.R., King, S.A.: Collision-free autonomous robot navigation in unknown environments utilizing pso for path planning. J. Artif. Intell. Soft Comput. Res., 9(4), 267–282 (2019). [Online]. https://www.sciendo.com/article/10.2478/jaiscr-2019-0008
Kuffner, J., LaValle, S.: RRT-connect: an efficient approach to single-query path planning. In: Proceedings 2000 ICRA. Millennium Conference. IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation. Symposia Proceedings (Cat. No.00CH37065), vol. 2, no. Icra. IEEE, 2000, pp. 995–1001. [Online]. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/844730/
Kulkarni, S., Chaphekar, V., Chowdhury, M. M. U., Erden, F., Guvenc I.: Uav aided search and rescue operation using reinforcement learning (2020). arXiv preprint arXiv:2002.08415
Lai, T.: Rapidly-exploring random forest: Adaptively exploits local structure with generalised multi-trees motion planning (2021). arXiv preprint arXiv:2103.04487
LaValle, S.M.: Rapidly-exploring random trees: a new tool for path planning. The annual research report (1998)
Lavalle, S.M., Kuffner, J.J. Jr.: Rapidly-exploring random trees: progress and prospects. In: Algorithmic and Computational Robotics: New Directions, 5th ed., pp. 293–308 (2001)
Lee, E.M., Choi, J., Lim, H., Myung, H.: Real: Rapid exploration with active loop-closing toward large-scale 3d mapping using uavs. In: 2021 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS). IEEE, pp. 4194–4198 (2021)
Li, W.: An improved artificial potential field method based on chaos theory for UAV route planning. In: 34rd Youth Academic Annual Conference of Chinese Association of Automation (YAC). IEEE 2019, pp. 47–51 (2019)
Li, D., Lu, M.: Classical planning model-based approach to automating construction planning on earthwork projects. Comput.-Aid. Civ. Infrastruct. Eng. 34(4), 299–315 (2019)
Li, J., Yang, S.X., Xu, Z.: A survey on robot path planning using bio-inspired algorithms. In: 2019 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Biomimetics (ROBIO). IEEE, pp. 2111–2116 (2019)
Li, W., Tan, M., Wang, L., Wang, Q.: A cubic spline method combing improved particle swarm optimization for robot path planning in dynamic uncertain environment. Int. J. Adv. Rob. Syst. 17(1), 1729881419891661 (2020)
Lin, S., Huang, J., Chen, W., Zhou, W., Xu, J., Liu, Y., Yao, J.: Intelligent warehouse monitoring based on distributed system and edge computing. Int. J. Intell. Robot. Appl. 5(2), 130–142 (2021)
Lison, P.: An Introduction to Machine Learning. Language Technology Group, Edinburgh (2015)
Ma, H., Meng, F., Ye, C., Wang, J., Meng, M.Q.-H.: Bi-risk-rrt based efficient motion planning for mobile robots. IEEE Trans. Intell. Veh. 7, 1–1 (2022)
McKinley, S., Levine, M.: Cubic spline interpolation. Coll. Redwoods 45(1), 1049–1060 (1998)
Meshcheryakov, R., Salomatin, A., Senchuk, D., Shirokov, A.: Scenario of search, detection, and control of invasive plant species using unmanned aircraft systems. Springer 01, 259–270 (2022)
Nath, A., Arun, A., Niyogi, R.: A distributed approach for road clearance with multi-robot in urban search and rescue environment. Int. J. Intell. Robot. Appl. 3(4), 392–406 (2019)
Nekovář, F., Faigl, J., Saska, M.: Multi-tour set traveling salesman problem in planning power transmission line inspection. IEEE Robot. Automat. Lett. 6(4), 6196–6203 (2021)
Noordin, A., Mohd Basri, M.A., Mohamed, Z., Mat Lazim, I.: Adaptive pid controller using sliding mode control approaches for quadrotor uav attitude and position stabilization. Arab. J. Sci. Eng. 46(2), 963–981 (2021)
Noreen, I., Khan, A., Habib, Z.: A Comparison of RRT, RRT* and RRT*-smart path planning algorithms. IJCSNS Int. J. Comput. Sci. Netw. Secur. 16(10), 20–27 (2016)
Noreen, I., Khan, A., Asghar, K., Habib, Z.: A path-planning performance comparison of rrt*-ab with mea* in a 2-dimensional environment. Symmetry 11(7), 945 (2019)
Ouerghi, M., Maxon, S., Hou, M., Zhang, F.: Improved trajectory tracing of underwater vehicles for flow field mapping. Int. J. Intell. Robot. Appl. 6(1), 69–85 (2022)
Pandey, P., Shukla, A., Tiwari, R.: Three-dimensional path planning for unmanned aerial vehicles using glowworm swarm optimization algorithm. Int. J. Syst. Assur. Eng. Manag. 9(4), 836–852 (2018)
Patle, B., Babu, G.L., Pandey, A., Parhi, D., Jagadeesh, A.: A review: on path planning strategies for navigation of mobile robot. Def. Technol. 15(4), 582–606 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dt.2019.04.011
Patle, B., Pandey, A., Parhi, D., Jagadeesh, A., et al.: A review: on path planning strategies for navigation of mobile robot. Def. Technol. 15, 582–606 (2019)
Perez-Grau, F.J., Ragel, R., Caballero, F., Viguria, A., Ollero, A.: An architecture for robust UAV navigation in gps-denied areas. J. Field Robot. 35(1), 121–145 (2018)
Pritzl, V., Stepan, P., Saska, M.: Autonomous flying into buildings in a firefighting scenario. In: 2021 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA). IEEE, May 2021, pp. 239–245
Qu, C., Gai, W., Zhong, M., Zhang, J.: A novel reinforcement learning based grey wolf optimizer algorithm for unmanned aerial vehicles (uavs) path planning. Appl Soft Comput 89, 106099 (2020)
Rahmadya, Hidayat, A., Aisyah, S., Husrin, S., Olsen, M.: Monitoring of plastic debris in the lower citarum river using unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). In: IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, vol. 950, no. 1, p. 012080 (2022). [Online]. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/950/1/012080
Research and Markets, Underwater Drone Market. Avenue, vol. 1 (2020)
Research and Markets, Autonomous Mobile Robot Market by Type. Research and Markets, vol. 1 (2022)
Rocha, L., Vivaldini, K.: Analysis and contributions of classical techniques for path planning. In: Latin American Robotics Symposium (LARS), 2021 Brazilian Symposium on Robotics (SBR), and 2021 Workshop on Robotics in Education (WRE). IEEE 2021, pp. 54–59 (2021)
Rocha, L., Vivaldini, K.: Plannie: a benchmark framework for autonomous robots path planning algorithms integrated to simulated and real environments. In: 2022 International Conference on Unmanned Aircraft Systems (ICUAS). IEEE, pp. 402–411 (2022)
Rocha, L., Vivaldini, K.: A 3d benchmark for uav path planning algorithms: missions complexity, evaluation and performance. In: International Conference on Unmanned Aircraft Systems (ICUAS) vol. 2022, pp. 412–420 (2022)
Rocha, L., Aniceto, M., Araújo, I., Vivaldini, K.: A uav global planner to improve path planning in unstructured environments. In: International Conference on Unmanned Aircraft Systems (ICUAS) vol. 2021, pp. 688–697 (2021)
Roy, D., Maitra, M., Bhattacharya, S.: Adaptive formation-switching of a multi-robot system in an unknown occluded environment using bat algorithm. Int. J. Intell. Robot. Appl. 4(4), 465–489 (2020)
Sharma, K., Doriya, R.: Path planning for robots: an elucidating draft. Int. J. Intell. Robot. Appl. 4(3), 294–307 (2020)
Soleimanpour-moghadam, M., Nezamabadi-pour, H.: A multi-robot task allocation algorithm based on universal gravity rules. Int. J. Intell. Robot. Appl. 5(1), 49–64 (2021)
Song, Y., Steinweg, M., Kaufmann, E., Scaramuzza, D.: Autonomous drone racing with deep reinforcement learning (2021). arXiv preprint arXiv:2103.08624
Taddia, Y., Corbau, C., Buoninsegni, J., Simeoni, U., Pellegrinelli, A.: Uav approach for detecting plastic marine debris on the beach: a case study in the po river delta (Italy). Drones, vol. 5, no. 4 (2021). [Online]. https://www.mdpi.com/2504-446X/5/4/140
Wang, C., Wang, J., Zhang, X., Zhang, X.: Autonomous navigation of uav in large-scale unknown complex environment with deep reinforcement learning. In: 2017 IEEE Global Conference on Signal and Information Processing (GlobalSIP). IEEE, pp. 858–862 (2017)
Wang, H., Sun, Z., Li, D., Jin, Q.: An improved rrt based 3-d path planning algorithm for uav. In: Chinese Control And Decision Conference (CCDC). IEEE 2019, pp. 5514–5519 (2019)
Wang, J., Li, T., Li, B., Meng, M.Q.-H.: Gmr-rrt*: sampling-based path planning using gaussian mixture regression. IEEE Trans. Intell. Veh. 7, 1–1 (2022)
Yue, X., Zhang, W.: Uav path planning based on k-means algorithm and simulated annealing algorithm. In: 37th Chinese Control Conference (CCC). IEEE vol. 2018, pp. 2290–2295 (2018)
Zammit, C., Van Kampen, E.-J.: Comparison between A* and RRT Algorithms for UAV Path Planning. In: 2018 AIAA Guidance, Navigation, and Control Conference, no. 210039. Reston, Virginia: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, pp. 1–23 (2018). [Online]. https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/10.2514/6.2018-1846
Zhang, X., Zhang, B., Chen, X., Fang, Y.: Coverage optimization of visual sensor networks for observing 3-d objects: survey and comparison. Int. J. Intell. Robot. Appl. 3(4), 342–361 (2019)
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge Brazilian research agency CAPES and CNPQ for the financial support of this research.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
All authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Rocha, L.G.S., Kim, P.H.C. & Teixeira Vivaldini, K.C. Performance analysis of path planning techniques for autonomous robots. Int J Intell Robot Appl 7, 778–794 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41315-023-00298-8
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s41315-023-00298-8