Do Electronic Coupon-Using Behaviors Make Men Womanish? The Effect of the Coupon–Feminine Stereotype

Abstract

Why are men less likely to use electronic coupons than women? Previous studies have explained the gender difference in coupon usage by exploring roles within the household and personality traits of the sexes. However, this research offers a novel explanation for this phenomenon, that men’s reluctance to use e-coupons may derive from the prevalent stereotype that e-coupon users are feminine. Because of the feminine stereotype associated with e-coupon usage, acquiring and using e-coupons are inconsistent with men’s gender identity. Five studies combining real data analysis, an online survey and experiments are used to support the previous notion. Using e-coupon acquisition data from a platform, study 1 tests whether females are more likely to acquire and use e-coupons than males in the real world. Study 2 experimentally tests the coupon–feminine stereotype. Study 3 explores the mediation effect of gender identity threat. Study 4 and study 5 consider two boundary conditions under which male consumers may be motivated to use e-coupons: when male consumers’ masculine identity is affirmed, and when the association between e-coupons and femininity is weakened. The results explain the gender difference in e-coupon usage from the novel lens of the coupon–feminine stereotype, offering a new and important perspective to explore the effect of gender identity on coupon use. Practical implications such as breaking the coupon–feminine stereotype, adopting a masculine design and communicating an affirmation of gender identity are further discussed.

1. Introduction

Brands and retailers invest billions of dollars in digital promotions yearly. According to coupon statistics of 2021 by Inmar, 29.3% of all coupons redeemed were digital. In 2021, the average coupon redemption rates through emails and smartphones were 2.7% and 16%, respectively. Juniper Research data shows that the total value of redeemed digital coupons was USD 47 billion in 2017, and the total redemptions will surpass USD 91 billion in 2022. In recent years, e-coupons are widely used as a marketing strategy in retailing businesses and the service industries to attract and sustain new and existing customers [1,2,3,4,5]. However, many studies suggest that the number of e-coupons that are finally used and redeemed by consumers is not as high as expected, given the proportion of retailers that issued e-coupons [6,7,8,9]. Thus, it is important for marketers to identify and analyze e-coupon redemption to develop effective marketing strategies [10].

Numerous coupon redemption studies highlight the importance of consumer demographic characteristics in explaining consumers’ coupon-using behaviors, which helps to achieve the best results in digital marketing [10,11,12,13]. A 2021 survey about couponing in the United States found that more women than men reported always using coupon aggregators while shopping online, with 14% of female respondents always using them, while only 8% of men said the same. Furthermore, male respondents were more likely than women to report that they rarely or never used digital coupon aggregators. Therefore, a nonnegligible reason for the low coupon redemption rate might be that, compared with women, men are less likely to use coupons in their daily lives [13,14,15]. In this research, we pay special attention to the gender difference when consumers decide whether to use e-coupons and the mechanism behind this. Emphasis is placed on male consumers for two reasons. On the one hand, considering females as critical users of coupons, marketers have tended to overlook the coupon-using behaviors of male consumers in the past [7,13]. On the other hand, since the overwhelming coupon promotions do not have satisfactory e-coupon redemption rates for the current main targets [6,8], enterprises can place more emphasis on male e-coupon users to avoid excessive competition.

Traditional studies have explained the gender difference in coupon usage by exploring roles in the household and personality traits of the sexes [13,16,17]. Compared to men, women are more likely to obtain and use coupons to save money [13], are more responsive to free-product samples [18], and are more likely to make purchasing decisions based on price promotions [19]. Because household purchases have traditionally been the role of housewives, they use coupons in shopping to reduce their living expenses [16,20]. However, these prior studies focus on print coupons, which may be outdated because many coupons nowadays are no longer clipped paper, but rather, are acquired and stored electronically. The electronic coupon (e-coupon) is an electronic voucher, belonging to the coupon holder, used to purchase products at a discounted price [21]. Unlike coupons that are printed on paper, e-coupons can be obtained and used through websites or smartphones, offering strong convenience and efficiency [10,21,22]. With the development of the internet, e-coupons have become the primary choice for marketing and promotions [10,21]. Although the reviewed literature displays the gender gap in coupon usage [10,13,16], few empirical studies have investigated the mechanism of why men are less likely to use e-coupons than women and the boundary conditions.

The present research does not dispute that household roles and trait differences between men and women contribute to the gender difference in coupon-acquiring and coupon-using behaviors. However, we offer a novel explanation for this phenomenon, especially for gender differences in e-coupon usage, which is that men’s reluctance to use e-coupons may derive from a prevalent stereotype that coupon usage is associated with feminine behavior. Because of this stereotype, obtaining and using coupons, even e-coupons, would lead to men’s gender identity being threatened, which would then decrease their intention to use e-coupons. The following sections explain the rationale behind the coupon-usage-associated feminine stereotype (henceforth, the coupon–feminine stereotype) and the gender identity threat for men, which we suggest contributes to the gender difference in e-coupon-using behaviors.

This paper makes three contributions to the literature on coupon promotions and self-congruence in terms of gender differences: (1) it explains men’s unwillingness to acquire and use e-coupons from the novel perspective of the coupon–feminine stereotype; (2) it explores two boundary conditions (masculinity affirmation and masculine design of coupons) under which men would be more amenable to using e-coupons; and (3) it extends the literature on self-congruence and gender identity through a link between gender identity and consumers’ tendency to use e-coupons and explains the psychological mechanism behind the coupon–feminine stereotype.

This paper is organized as follows. Section 2 gives an overview of the literature on e-coupons, self-congruence and gender identity. Section 3 proposes five hypotheses. Section 4 uses a combination of real data analysis, online surveys and experiments to test the hypotheses. Section 5 summarizes the results and identifies the theoretical contributions, managerial implications, limitations and future research.

2. Literature Review

2.1. E-Coupon-Using Behaviors

Traditionally, e-coupons provide price reductions to consumers who acquire and redeem them. Many studies have shown that consumer characteristics such as demographic variables [7,22], psychological variables [6,9,23,24] and social variables [25,26,27,28] may affect customers’ e-coupon acquiring and using behaviors. Consumers are often required to provide retailers with their personal information [17] or even pay to acquire and use e-coupons before purchase [2]. E-coupon acquisition and usage therefore seem not to be costless anymore. Although billions of e-coupons are issued every year to attract and sustain customers [3], the usage rate is not as high as expected [6,7,8]. This means that consumers’ willingness to obtain and use e-coupons becomes a necessary condition for e-coupon redemption.

E-coupons can be presented through different mediums. For example, e-coupons can be sent to consumers via desktop devices and mobile devices. Among them, distributing questionnaires to consumers through methods such as mobile text messages, emails and smartphone applications has advantages. This approach can assist sellers in obtaining various consumer information, help consumers enter the shopping state ahead of time and increase the redemption rate of the coupons [29].

Previous studies have examined various aspects of e-coupons such as e-coupon redemption [2,6,7,8,9], e-coupon face value and consumer spending [30,31], location-based e-coupons [7,32], e-coupon effectiveness [33,34] and e-coupon proneness [9,20]. The majority of these studies have targeted the usage intention and effectiveness of e-coupons but lack the consideration of gender differences in consumers’ e-coupon-using behaviors. In this research, we pay special attention to the gender difference when consumers decide whether to use e-coupons. For example, although females have traditionally been stereotyped as making household purchases [17], and thus tend to be sensitive to price [35], males will also potentially use e-coupons to reduce costs if their self-identity is not threatened during the e-coupon-using process.

2.2. Self-Congruence and Gender Identity

The notion of self-concept can be taken in two forms: the actual self and the ideal self; the actual self refers to a set of traits individuals actually believe they possess, whereas the ideal self explains how an individual hopes to perceive themselves [36,37,38]. An individual’s self-concept is driven by the state of self-congruence to a great extent [38]. Self-congruence theory suggests that individuals are motivated to maintain their self-concept and act to be congruent with their actual, ideal or social identity [39,40]. As an indicator of its importance in decision making, self-congruence has been shown to influence an individual’s attitude toward the brand [41,42,43], purchase intentions [44], responses to advertising [45,46] and perceptions of product experience [47,48,49].

As an integral part of one’s self-concept, gender identity has been defined as the degree to which a person perceives the self to be masculine or feminine in a given society [50,51,52]. Prior research suggests that the gender identity concept begins with the intrapersonal level as a self-evaluation of masculinity or femininity and influences how people perceive the world and how they behave [52,53]. In other words, societal norms about ideal masculinity and femininity may inform an individuals’ gender identity; meanwhile, gender identity can form the rationale for the specific gendered behaviors one displays [54,55,56]. Additionally, since possessions and behaviors can serve as signals of identity, individuals may maintain gender identity through their choices [57,58].

2.3. S-O-R Theory

The stimulus-organism-response (SOR) model is a theoretical behavioral model that stands as one of the foundations of modern cognitive psychology [59]. The theory considers that a stimulus (S) is generated by the external stimulus, the organism (O) is the mechanism for psychological transformation after being influenced by the external environment, and the response (R) is the corresponding reaction made by the organism [60,61]. This model states that external stimuli, which can influence people’s cognition and emotions, can in turn influence their behavioral decisions [62].

The SOR model has been applied by scholars in various online contexts, such as electronic word-of-mouth (eWOM) and online customer decision making [63], virtual reality tourism [64], online brand communities [65], online advertising [66], etc. This research uses the SOR model to investigate the influence of e-coupon promotions for men and women as a stimulus on gender identity threat, which in turn influences their e-coupon-using behaviors.

3. Hypotheses

3.1. Gender Differences in E-Coupon Usage and the Coupon–Feminine Stereotype

Consumption behaviors are assumed to fit with a person’s gender identity [67]. According to this statement, men are less likely to use e-coupons than women in their daily lives. There are several reasons why coupon-using behaviors are associated with femininity and there is a gender difference in e-coupon usage.

First, men have not traditionally been considered target consumers for most household purchases; thus, conventional wisdom holds that most coupon users are women [16]. For example, many initial coupon-targeting areas include groceries, cleaning, laundry and department stores in which women tend to be more involved in searching for and using coupons than males [17].

Second, coupons were traditionally designed to be feminine by using colors and pictures that appeal more to women than to men [68]. Anecdotal evidence also suggests that many e-coupon designs are more often female focused than male focused: a Baidu image search for “electronic coupon” revealed that among the top images on the first page, the colors were mainly red, pink, or other bright colors, making the coupons appear feminine [57,67].

Third, consumers use e-coupons to save money, reflecting a thrifty and economical nature, which is a conventional feminine trait [69]. Females are brought up to be industrious and thrifty in managing a household when they are young, while males are always taught not to be stingy and penny-pinching [35]. Therefore, based on the association between e-coupon use and femininity, when we think about acquiring and using e-coupons, the coupon–feminine stereotype comes to mind.

According to self-congruence theory, individuals may wish to see themselves in a certain way (ideal self) or be seen in a certain way by others (reference groups) [46,70]. The psychological process behind a male-identity’s unwillingness to use e-coupons in purchasing decisions may be as follows: When male consumers first notice the e-coupons, the desire of taking advantage promotes their possibility to use the e-coupons [2,6]. However, as real using behaviors are about to happen, internal self-identity threat and external social pressure occur [50,52]. Being afraid of associations with femininity and maintain gender identity, male consumers tend to convince themselves that it is improper for them to present feminine behaviors [57,58]. Thus, male consumers are more likely to prevent e-coupon-using behaviors.

Because consumers’ behaviors are often directed toward maintaining gender identity [55], we propose that a plausible explanation for men’s reluctance to acquire and use e-coupons is the existence of the coupon–feminine stereotype, such that using e-coupons would make men appear more feminine in their behavior. Therefore, we hypothesize that because of the association between e-coupon usage and femininity, men will be less likely than women to acquire and use e-coupons.

H1. 

When facing e-coupon promotions, males are less likely than females to show e-coupon-using intentions.

H2. 

E-coupon users are more likely to be regarded as feminine than those who do not use e-coupons.

3.2. Mediating the Effect of Gender Identity Threat

E-coupon-using behaviors can be related to the users’ gender identity, consumers who use e-coupons will be perceived as more feminine. For women, the feminine perception is in accordance with their gender identity. Whereas for men, being perceived as feminine will be a threat to their masculinity, hurting their gender identity.

According to social identity theory, people derive their self-concept from their perceived group membership, such as their gender group [71]. They conform to the ingroup norms and avoid being associated with dissociative out-groups, with the aim of affirming and maintaining a social identity, such as gender identity [57]. Thus, men will comply with masculine expectations and norms, avoiding associations with feminine traits and behaviors. In other words, the gender identity of men can be threated when being associated with femininity. E-coupon use has been recognized or perceived as a feminine behavior for a long time [16,68,69], which will then threaten male users’ gender identity.

Gender identity is crucial to construct individuals’ self-concept, and people are motivated to maintain their gender identity [50]. Furthermore, gender identity is particularly important for males. When men fail in conforming to their masculine gender role norms, they have to suffer more than women who are in the same situation [72]. Compared to women, men struggle harder to maintain their gender identity [73]. Before using e-coupons, men will anticipate more stereotype threat about gender identity, which can be harmful to their self-concept. In order to cope with self-threat, consumers are often avoidance motivated [74]. Therefore, we propose that men will keep from using e-coupons to avoid the potential gender identity threat.

H3. 

Gender identity threat mediates the effect of gender on e-coupon-using intention.

3.3. Moderating Effects

If the coupon–feminine stereotype exists in a wide range of people, it can affect social judgments for e-coupon users, resulting in those who acquire and use e-coupons to seem more feminine than others. Consumers’ response to the coupon–feminine stereotype is likely to depend on both gender differences and situational factors, such as gender cues [57]. The coupon–feminine stereotype is likely to impede e-coupon usage for those who wish to avoid feminine associations; in contrast, when consumers do not place emphasis on the need to maintain a masculine gender identity, this stereotype may have little effect.

The basic standpoint of the present paper is that men may avoid acquiring and using e-coupons in order to safeguard their masculinity. However, according to previous studies, men are likely to be involved in activities that are perceived as feminine (e.g., environmentally friendly behaviors or consuming stereotypically feminine food options) when their masculinity has been confirmed, while they are less likely to do so when their masculinity has been threatened [57,75]. Based on these prior studies, we predict two boundary conditions under which men would be more amenable to acquiring and using e-coupons. One condition is when male consumers’ masculine identity is affirmed; the other is when the association between e-coupon and femininity is weakened. Under these two conditions, males are less likely to be afraid of the gender identity threat from the coupon-using behaviors.

It is important to note that men and women show different sensitivity to maintaining their gender identity [57,75]. Particularly, men tend to be more attentive to maintaining their gender identity than women because they are more likely to receive punishment if they behave inconsistently with their gender identity [73]. Therefore, men are more likely to distinguish themselves from women through possessions and behaviors to avoid being associated with a feminine identity [75,76]. For example, researchers indicate that men will actively pursue notions of masculinity through brand consumption related to breadwinning and rebel masculinity [77]. Fugate and Phillips [67] demonstrated that product gendering is prevalent, and males were more likely than females to purchase gender-congruent products. Additionally, prior brand management research also indicates that men will have a negative evaluation of brands that have feminine names [78].

Therefore, when masculine identity is affirmed, men are more likely to acquire and use e-coupons. However, there will be little effect of masculinity on women’s e-coupon-using behaviors, since they are less sensitive to maintaining their gender identity than men as far as e-coupon use is concerned. Similarly, when the association between e-coupon and femininity is weakened, men are more likely to be involved in e-coupon-using activities, but for women, since the e-coupon-using behaviors would not threaten their gender identity, the decrease in the association between e-coupons and femininity will not influence their choices. Therefore, we hypothesize the following:

H4. 

Affirmation of masculine identity moderates the effect of gender on e-coupon-using intention. When masculine identity is affirmed, men are more likely to show increased e-coupon-using intention, whereas for women, there is no significant difference.

H5. 

The association between e-coupons and femininity moderates the effect of gender on e-coupon-using intention. When the association between e-coupons and femininity is weakened, men are more likely to show increased e-coupon-using intention, whereas for women, there is no significant difference.

4. Studies and Results

Using the SOR model, this study defines the stimulus as e-coupon promotions for male and female consumers, the intrinsic perception of the organism as gender identity threat, and the response of the organism as e-coupon-using intention. Furthermore, we also consider two boundary conditions under which male consumers may be motivated to use e-coupons. The research framework of this paper is shown in Figure 1.

We use a combination of real data analysis, online surveys and experiments to test our conceptual framework (see Figure 1). Using e-coupon acquisition data from a platform, study 1 tests whether females are more likely to acquire and use e-coupons than males in the real world and verifies H1 first. Study 2 experimentally tests H2 that people mentally associate e-coupon-using behaviors with femininity, which results in a coupon–feminine stereotype. Study 3 explores the mediation effect of gender identity threat between gender and e-coupon-using intention to test H3. Study 4 and study 5 consider the boundary conditions under which male consumers may be motivated to use e-coupons and test H4 and H5, respectively. Study 4 tests whether masculinity affirmation would increase men’s likelihood to use e-coupons and study 5 tests whether a change in the design of e-coupons to weaken feminine associations would make men more likely to acquire e-coupons. Study 4 and study 5 are also used to prove the notion that men’s reluctance to use e-coupons may derive from the coupon–feminine stereotype by a moderating effect. See Appendix A for the profile of each study.

4.1. Study 1: The Gender Difference in E-Coupon Usage

Previous studies suggest that examining consumption-relevant phenomena under ecologically validity conditions is crucial to test generalizability and real-world impact [79,80,81,82]. Therefore, our research firstly provides real-world evidence of the phenomenon that males are less likely to use e-coupons than females in order to verify hypothesis 1. Furthermore, given that prior research has found that gender-identity threats have a greater influence on men’s public behaviors than private behaviors [57,83,84], we wanted to test whether men are more likely to prevent e-coupon-using behaviors in a public versus private context to maintain their masculinity.

We collected data from an e-coupon acquisition platform. This platform provides all kinds of e-coupons to consumers. Consumers can browse the e-coupons available on the platform and decide whether to acquire and use them; however, they need to allow retailers access to their mobile phone number in order to issue the e-coupons.

Some e-coupons in the platform need to be redeemed offline in the public context, while others just need to be redeemed online in the private context. Take the public context for example, many restaurants or movie theaters offer e-coupons online, but consumers need to use these e-coupons when they consume offline and redeem them through service staff in the public context. The information that e-coupons need to be used offline (public context) or just online (private context) was shown in the details, which consumers can know before acquiring the e-coupons. Therefore, we can take advantage of the data from the platform to test men’s e-coupon-using behaviors in the public versus private context.

4.1.1. Data

Our dataset includes e-coupon browsing and e-coupon-using data from an e-coupon platform in China between May and August. The e-coupon platform allows brands and retailers to send e-coupons to consumers. Consumers can follow this platform on their WeChat accounts and disclose their mobile phone numbers to retailers to obtain the e-coupons. E-coupons refer to monetary discounts bound to specific products or services, which consumers cannot exchange for cash.

The availability of e-coupons on this platform is not limited to its users. The users on this platform can forward the e-coupon pages to their friends and share them on WeChat Moments or other social platforms. Therefore, consumers who have accessed the e-coupon pages are able to acquire the e-coupons, regardless of whether he/she has used the platform before. The e-coupon pages show the retailers, specific discounts, and use policy. In order to obtain the e-coupons on their mobile phones, consumers need to enter their mobile phone numbers on the e-coupon pages for the retailers. After entering their mobile phone numbers, consumers finish the whole process.

Important information (e.g., consumers’ gender) is available from the WeChat platform. The users’ reported gender as shown in WeChat includes male, female, and unknown; the latter being used when the user chooses not to disclose their gender. Because the proportion of users of unknown gender is particularly small and unrelated to our study, we did not collect these data. Another important variable is “Public”, which refers to whether consumers need to redeem the e-coupons in the public context, such as shopping in offline stores, offline services or entertainments. “Public” equals to 1 indicates the e-coupons need to be redeemed offline in the public context, while equals to 0 indicates the alternative. Furthermore, we collected information regarding the face value of the e-coupons and the day of the week.

4.1.2. Analysis and Results

Of the 13169 browsing histories in our dataset, 8399 (63.78%) browsing histories came from females and 4770 (36.22%) histories came from males. More importantly, 6694 (79.70% of 8399) of the females who browsed the e-coupons chose to acquire them, while only 2774 (58.16% of 4770) of the males chose to acquire e-coupons. Women’s usage rate of e-coupons was therefore significantly higher than that of men (p < 0.001), which preliminarily support our prediction that men are less likely to use e-coupons than women.

Next, we estimated a logistic regression to test whether women are more likely to use e-coupons than men (see Model 1 in

Table 1. Logistic regression results, study 1.

	Model 1	Model 2	Model 3
Gender	−1.016 ***	−0.815 ***
	(0.040)	(0.097)
Public	0.024	0.129	−0.215 *
	(0.064)	(0.078)	(0.096)
Log (Face value)	0.019	0.020	0.066 *
	(0.021)	(0.021)	(0.030)
Gender * Public		−0.244 *
		(0.106)
Day of the week	Yes	Yes	Yes
Constant	1.154 ***	1.067 ***	0.155
	(0.091)	(0.098)	(0.134)
Observations	13,169	13,169	4,770
Log Likelihood	−7441.009	−7438.379	−3234.871
Akaike Inf. Crit.	14,902.020	14,898.760	6487.742

Table 1 shows the coefficients and std. errors (the numbers in brackets); *, p < 0.05; and ***, p < 0.001.

for details). Model 1 used gender as an independent variable (male = 1; female = 0), and controlled variables related to coupons (public and face value of the coupon) and browsing time (day of the week). We define the dependent variable as whether consumers use the e-coupon (use coupon = 1; otherwise = 0). The effect of gender (male = 1; female = 0) on e-coupon usage was significantly negative (Model 1, z value = −25.204, p < 0.001), which means that compared to women, men are less likely to use e-coupons, supporting H1. Model 2 included the interaction item of gender and public based on model 1. The interaction effect of gender and public was significantly negative (Model 2, z value = −2.295, p = 0.022), which means that compared to women, men are more likely to refuse e-coupons in a public context versus a private context.

As a robustness test, we extracted the sample of men to form a new subsample. Model 3 used the subsample of men to do a logistic regression. We used public as the independent variable and controlled variables related to e-coupons (face value of the coupon) as well as browsing time (day of the week). The effect of public on men’s coupon usage was significantly negative (Model 3, z value = −2.241, p = 0.025), which means men are more likely to prevent e-coupon-using behaviors in a public versus private context.

4.1.3. Discussion

The data analysis in this study provides preliminary real-world evidence for our hypothesis 1 that men are less likely than women to use e-coupons. Although traditional studies have also proposed this notion for coupons [14,16], their data were far from present in real life. Additionally, these previous studies did not use models with sufficient control variables to test their findings. In our study, we collected consumers’ browsing data; therefore, we were able to use a logistic regression model to test the causal effect.

Moreover, we found that men are more likely to prevent e-coupon usage in a public versus a private context, which provided primary evidence that e-coupon-using behaviors, leading to perceptions of femininity by others, would reduce men’s coupon usage further. This finding is relevant in light of several other articles, which have demonstrated that men in particular are more prone to signal status in public (vs. private) shopping settings [84,85,86,87,88]. However, we acknowledge that the real-data analysis could not directly test whether the coupon–feminine stereotype influences men’s e-coupon-using behaviors. We address this in subsequent experiments in our research.

4.2. Study 2: E-Coupon Users Are Perceived to Be More Feminine

The purpose of study 2 was to test the existence of the coupon–feminine stereotype, i.e., that those who use e-coupons are perceived to be more feminine (H2). According to self-congruence and gender identity theory, the coupon–feminine stereotype can explain why men are less likely to use e-coupons than women in their daily lives. Therefore, study 2 examined the prevalence of the stereotype, among both men and women, that those who do (vs. do not) engage in e-coupon-using behaviors are perceived as more feminine and less masculine.

4.2.1. Method

We recruited 136 students from universities (N = 136; 48.5% male; mean age = 21.04) and randomly assigned them to one of two conditions in a single-factor (e-coupon-using behavior: yes vs. no), between-subjects design in an online survey. Participants in the e-coupon-using condition were shown the following scenario, which included the image of a small billboard: “After selecting goods from a supermarket, Consumer L joined a queue for the checkout lane. L saw a small billboard on the cashier desk asking customers to scan a QR code to acquire e-coupons. Then L scanned the QR code and followed the supermarket official account to get a ¥5 e-coupon. Finally, L used this e-coupon when checked out”. Participants in the e-coupon refusing condition read the following scenario, which included the same billboard: “After selecting goods from a supermarket, Consumer L joined a queue for the checkout lane. L saw a small billboard on the cashier desk asking customers to scan a QR code to acquire e-coupons. But L did not scan the QR code to get a ¥5 e-coupon. Finally, L checked out without using the e-coupon”. Therefore, the e-coupon-using behavior of Consumer L (yes vs. no) was the independent variable.

We then provided ratings for 12 traits (including feminine, soft, gentle, sensitive, masculine, macho, manly, aggressive, athletic, attractive, friendly and curious) which were presented in a random order to describe the target person, Consumer L. We used a seven-point scale (1 = not at all; 7 = perfectly). The selection of 12 traits and their expected classification was empirically based on previous research [57,89] and our pretesting. The 12 traits were considered to be stereotypically feminine (feminine, soft, gentle and sensitive), stereotypically masculine (masculine, macho, manly and aggressive) or gender neutral (athletic, attractive, friendly and curious). After rating the 12 traits, participants were asked to guess whether L is male or female based on their judgements. Then, they reported their own gender and age.

4.2.2. Results

To test H2 that those who use (vs. do not use) e-coupons are perceived to be more feminine and less masculine, we need to form a femininity index and a masculinity index by averaging the feminine/masculine traits as dependent variables. First, the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) value of eight traits (four feminine traits and four masculine traits) was 0.766, and the approximate chi-square value for Bartlett’s test of sphericity was 512.377 (p = 0.000), indicating that factor analysis was feasible for these data. The factors were extracted by principal component analysis and rotated by Varimax, which showed that these eight traits loaded on the two factors, together explaining 70.35% of the total variance (see Appendix B for details). The reliability analysis of the feminine and masculine factors was acceptable, with a Cronbach’s Alpha of 0.813 and 0.864, respectively. Therefore, we constructed an index of femininity by averaging the four feminine traits (α = 0.813) and an index of masculinity by averaging the four masculine traits (α = 0.864).

Consistent with our prediction, the femininity index of target person L was significantly different under the two conditions (t = 5.85, p < 0.001). The femininity index of target person L under the e-coupon-using condition (M = 4.45, SD = 0.99, N = 68) was higher than that under the e-coupon refusing condition (M = 3.32, SD = 1.26, N = 68), which means e-coupon users are more likely to be regarded as feminine than e-coupon refusers, supporting H2. In order to eliminate the influence of participants’ gender on the judgement of target L, we performed a 2 × 2 ANOVA with the participants’ gender and e-coupon-using condition as independent variables and the femininity index of target person L as the dependent variable. Results showed that only the main effect of the e-coupon-using condition was significant (F = 34.01, p < 0.001), while the main effect of participants’ gender (F = 0.09, p = 0.76) and the interaction effect (F = 0.21, p = 0.65) were both non-significant.

We next tested whether the masculinity index of target person L was different under the two e-coupon-using conditions. Results showed that the masculinity index of target person L under the e-coupon-using condition (M = 3.23, SD = 1.13, N = 68) was lower than under the e-coupon refusing condition (M = 4.10, SD = 1.38, N = 68; t = −4.03, p < 0.001), which means e-coupon users are likely to be regarded as less masculine than e-coupon refusers. The 2 (e-coupon-using condition: yes vs. no) × 2 (participants’ gender: male vs. female) ANOVA test showed that only the main effect of the e-coupon-using condition was significant (F = 15.89, p < 0.001), while the main effect of participants’ gender (F = 0.45, p = 0.50) and the interaction effect (F = 0.04, p = 0.84) were both non-significant.

Additionally, we tested whether the gender-neutral traits (athletic, attractive, friendly and curious) of target person L were different under the two e-coupon-using conditions. Results showed that there was no significant difference in athletic (t = 1.37, p = 0.17), attractive (t = 1.17, p = 0.25), friendly (t = 1.51, p = 0.14) or curious (t = 1.15, p = 0.25) between the e-coupon-using condition and e-coupon refusing condition.

Last, we analyzed participants’ judgement of target person L’s gender under different e-coupon-using conditions. Among those who were exposed to the e-coupon-using condition, 70.6% participants perceived L as female, whereas in the e-coupon refusing condition, only 22.1% participants perceived L as female (p < 0.001). Since more people guess the e-coupon user as female and e-coupon refuser as male, we further support the notion that coupon users are more likely to be regarded as feminine than those who do not use coupons, providing more support for H2.

4.2.3. Discussion

Consistent with our hypothesis, the results of study 2 showed that e-coupon users are more likely to be perceived as more feminine than those who refused to use e-coupons. Results also showed that the prevalence of the coupon–feminine stereotype influences others’ social judgement across both genders. We argue that this association may explain why men are less likely to use e-coupons than women in their daily lives, particularly if they are motivated to maintain their masculinity.

4.3. Study 3: The Role of Gender Identity Threat

Study 3 aimed to explore the mediation effect of gender identity threat between gender and e-coupon-using intention. Study 2 showed that consumers who use e-coupons were perceived to be more feminine, which would be a threat to males but not females. Therefore, the e-coupon could activate males’ potential threat about gender identity and then lead to their avoidance of e-coupon using. In Study 3, we would examine whether men were reluctant to redeem e-coupons because they anticipated the potential gender identity threat. In addition, we address a potential alternative mediator, willingness to invest. Redeeming e-coupons requires an investment of effort and time, and men might be less willing to invest.

4.3.1. Method

122 participants (N = 122; 50% male; mean age = 21.52) were recruited to express their attitude about e-coupons through an online survey. We told them that we were conducting a survey about e-coupon use. In the survey, we first required the participants to indicate their willingness to use e-coupons as the dependent variable (I would like to use e-coupons; I want to use e-coupons; and I think e-coupons are useful; 1 = not at all to 7 = very much), as well as their experience when using e-coupons referring to Lalwani and Wang [90] (Redeeming e-coupons makes me feel good; I enjoy collecting e-coupons from the internet; when I use e-coupons, I do not feel that I am getting a good deal (R); I do not enjoy using e-coupons regardless of the amount I save by doing so (R); and redeeming e-coupons does not give me a sense of joy (R); 1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree). These items were followed by the measurements of gender identity threat with two items referring to Michniewicz et al. [91] (When collecting or using coupons, to what extent do you think that others will see you as “not a real man (woman)” and “less of a man (woman), 1 = not at all to 7 = very much) and their willingness to invest in coupon redeeming referring to Shen et al. [92] (How much effort/time will you spend on coupon redeeming, 1 = not at all to 7 = very much). Participants were also asked to disclose their gender and age at the end.

4.3.2. Results

A one-way ANOVA (gender: male vs. female) on e-coupon usage intention (α = 0.91) showed that women (M_women = 6.26, SD = 1.02) were more willing to use coupons than men (M_men = 5.69, SD = 1.26; F = 7.67, p < 0.01). Additionally, the one-way ANOVA (gender: male vs. female) on e-coupon usage experience showed that women (M_women = 5.15, SD = 1.06) had a better experience than men (M_men = 4.33, SD = 1.05; F = 18.42, p < 0.001) when using coupons. These results provided more support for H1.

The mediation effect of gender identity threat was also examined. We conducted the mediation analysis [93] (PROCESS, Model 4, 5000 bootstrap samples) to test the effect mechanism. We first tested the mediation effect of gender identity threat between gender and e-coupon usage intention. The results showed a significant index of mediation (B_indirect = 0.23, 95% CI = [0.0056, 0.5280]), indicating that men anticipated more gender identity threat, which then decreased their usage intention about e-coupons. Similarly, we tested the mediation effect of gender identity threat between gender and e-coupon usage experience. The results showed a significant index of mediation (B_indirect = 0.51, 95% CI = [0.2566, 0.8067]), indicating that men anticipated more gender identity threat, which further lead to poorer usage experience. These results provided support for H3.

Furthermore, we examined the alternative explanation that men might be less willing to invest in coupon redeeming. A mediation analysis including willingness to invest as a dependent measure was conducted to test the alternative mediator, ruling out this explanation (B_indirect = −0.13, 95% CI = [−0.3308, 0.0280]). A mediation analysis including e-coupon usage experience as a dependent measure was also conducted to test the alternative mediator, ruling out this explanation (B_indirect = 0.02, 95% CI = [−0.0428, 0.1090]).

4.3.3. Discussion

Study 3 examined the mediation effect of gender identity threat. The findings indicated that the coupon–feminine stereotype would lead to men’s gender identity threat, and then decrease their intention to use coupons. Additionally, we ruled out the alternative mediation effect of willingness to invest. Though it can take time and effort to redeem e-coupons, men showed less willingness to use coupons and a poorer experience not because of the low willingness to invest but the potential or anticipated threat about gender identity.

4.4. Study 4: Affirmation of Masculine Identity

The purpose of Study 4 was to test one of the boundaries under which male consumers would be amenable to using e-coupons. Specifically, we tested whether the affirmation of masculine identity would increase men’s e-coupon-using intention (H4).

4.4.1. Method

We recruited 120 participants from an online website (N = 120; 50% male; mean age = 22.5) and randomly assigned them to one of four conditions in a 2 (affirmation of masculine identity: masculinity affirmation vs. control) × 2 (participants’ gender: male vs. female) between-subjects design.

Before the experiment, participants were told that the survey included two unrelated parts: the first part was an ABO psychological quiz, and the second a study of online shopping. In the ABO psychological quiz, we informed participants that “everybody has a real gender in the deep recesses of her/his mind, from masculine to feminine, there are many levels”. Then they were asked to take a psychological quiz to test whether their identity is masculine or feminine. We showed participants in the masculinity affirmation condition that the results in the psychological quiz strongly indicated that they were masculine as well as some sentences describing their masculinity, regardless of how they actually answered the quiz. Participants in the control condition were told that the results of the psychological quiz would be shown at the end of the survey. A pretest was conducted before the formal experiment with 60 males randomly assigned to the masculinity affirmation condition and control condition. Results showed that the masculine level of the masculinity affirmation condition was significantly higher than that of the control group (6.07 vs. 5.00, t = 4.86, p < 0.001) and the femininity level of the masculinity affirmation condition was lower (2.03 vs. 2.97, t = −3.50, p = 0.001). Therefore, we used the ABO psychological quiz to manipulate affirmation of masculine identity.

In the second part, all participants were required to imagine the scenario: “You recently wanted to buy a mobile hard disk: you saw that a few products are selling on a shopping website. The website provides CNY 40 e-coupons for consumers, but consumers can only use the e-coupons when they spend more than CNY 300”. Then, we showed them four products (A, B, C, and D) to choose from, each with a description and a picture. Product A (price: CNY 248) and B (price: CNY 256) were mobile hard disks; product C (price: CNY 102) was a Bluetooth headset; product D (price: CNY 99) was a wireless mouse. We asked participants to choose any one or several of the four products. They could also choose none of them and buy nothing. After that, participants answered three questions measuring their usage intention for the CNY 40 e-coupon (1 = not at all to 7 = very much). We then asked participants to rate how feminine/masculine they considered themselves to be (1 = not at all to 7 = very much). Participants were also asked to disclose their gender and age at the end. After this experiment, we told the participants that the ABO psychological quiz was not real and that the results were for the purposes of manipulation.

4.4.2. Results

To ensure that the manipulation of masculinity affirmation was effective, we performed two 2 (affirmation of masculine identity) × 2 (participants’ gender) ANOVA tests with the level of masculinity and femininity as dependent variables, respectively. The masculine level of the masculinity affirmation condition (M_{masculinity affirmation} = 4.72, SD = 1.60, N = 60) was significantly higher than that of the control group (M_control = 4.25, SD = 1.50, N = 60; F = 4.33, p = 0.04), and men’s masculinity level (M_male = 5.42, SD = 1.17, N = 60) was higher than women’s (M_female = 3.55, SD = 1.33, N = 60; F = 69.34, p < 0.001). The interaction effect was not significant (F = 2.68, p = 0.11). Furthermore, the femininity level of the masculinity affirmation condition (M_{masculinity affirmation} = 3.47, SD = 1.76, N = 60) was significantly lower than that of the control group (M_control = 3.93, SD = 1.66, N = 60; F = 4.77, p = 0.03), and men’s femininity level (M_male = 2.47, SD = 1.33, N = 60) was lower than that of women (M_female = 4.93, SD = 1.04, N = 60; F = 133.34, p < 0.001). The interaction effect was not significant (F = 2.44, p = 0.12). Therefore, the manipulation of masculinity affirmation was successful.

Next, we carried out a 2 (affirmation of masculine identity: masculinity affirmation vs. control) × 2 (participants’ gender: male vs. female) ANOVA with a composite e-coupon-using intention measure (α = 0.905) as the dependent variable. Results showed that the main effect of participants’ gender (F = 7.49, p = 0.007) and affirmation of masculine identity (F = 6.01, p = 0.016) were significant. Women’s e-coupon-using intention (M = 5.50, SD = 1.24, N = 60) was higher than men’s (M = 4.76, SD = 1.85, N = 60), providing more support for H1. Furthermore, we found that participants’ e-coupon-using intention in the masculinity affirmation group (M = 5.46, SD = 1.27, N = 60) was higher than that in control group (M = 4.79, SD = 1.84, N = 60).

Importantly, the interaction effect of affirmation of masculine identity and participants’ gender was significant (F = 9.13, p = 0.003; see Figure 2). Consistent with H4, for males, the e-coupon-using intention in the masculinity affirmation condition (M_{masculinity affirmation} = 5.50, SD = 1.28, N = 30) was significantly higher than that in the control group (M_control = 4.01, SD = 2.04, N = 30; t = 3.39, p = 0.001), whereas for females, there was no significant difference between the masculinity affirmation group (M_{masculinity affirmation} = 5.42, SD = 1.29, N = 30) and the control group (M_control = 5.58, SD = 1.20, N = 30; t = −0.48, p = 0.63).

Finally, we conducted a robustness test to provide more support for our hypothesis 4. We define e-coupon-using behavior as choosing products that cost more than CNY 300 to use the CNY 40 e-coupon (e-coupon-using behavior = 1; otherwise, e-coupon-using behavior = 0). E-coupon-using behavior was a binary variable. Then we carried out a logistic analysis with affirmation of masculine identity (masculinity affirmation = 1, control = 0), participants’ gender (male = 1, female = 0), and their interaction term as independent variables and e-coupon-using behavior as a dependent variable. Results showed that the main effect of participants’ gender was significantly negative (p = 0.021), which means that males show less e-coupon-using behaviors than females. The interaction effect of affirmation of masculine identity and participants’ gender was significantly positive (p = 0.006), which means that compared with females, masculinity affirmation could sharply increase males’ e-coupon-using behaviors, consistent with H4.

4.4.3. Discussion

The results of study 4 were consistent with our H4 that, due to this coupon–feminine association, compared with women, men are more likely to show increased e-coupon-using intention when their masculine identity is affirmed. The coupon–feminine stereotype is likely to impede e-coupon usage for those who wish to avoid feminine associations; in contrast, when consumers do not place emphasis on the need to maintain a masculine gender identity, this stereotype may have little effect. Study 4 shows that when participants’ masculinity has been affirmed, men are more likely to use e-coupons, while women are less motivated to maintain their gender identity than men and show no difference in different gender cue conditions.

Additionally, study 4 helps to rule out the alternative account that biological gender cues (e.g., prenatal testosterone) often yield different results in consumption contexts compared to more sociocultural gender cues [94] (e.g., gender identity). In this study, we manipulated participants’ masculine level using sociocultural gender cues (without any change in biological gender cues) and found that men are more likely to use e-coupons when their masculinity has been affirmed. The results in study 4 could not be explained by biological gender cues. Therefore, this research supports the notion that the coupon–feminine stereotype is an important explanation for men’s reluctance to use e-coupons. We do not dispute other possible explanations contributing to the gender difference in e-coupon-using behaviors, but the coupon–feminine stereotype we proposed can explain many phenomena that other alternative interpretations could not account for.

4.5. Study 5: Changing the E-Coupon Design to Weaken Feminine Associations

The purpose of study 5 was to test another boundary condition under which men are likely to use e-coupons. As mentioned before, e-coupons tend to be designed as more female-focused than male-focused, e.g., through the use of bright colors or feminine design elements. In this study, we aim to test H5 that changing the design of e-coupons to weaken feminine associations would make men more likely to acquire and use e-coupons.

4.5.1. Method

In accordance with prior studies, we used dark colors, bold fonts, and male-focused symbols to make the e-coupon designs appear more masculine and less feminine [57,67].

The participants of study 5 were mainly employed persons recruited from the website (N = 160; 54.4% male; mean age = 28.5) and were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in a 2 (design: masculine design vs. control) × 2 (participants’ gender: male vs. female) between-subjects design.

Participants were asked to imagine the following scenario: “At the weekend, you invite some colleagues to dine in a restaurant. You have dinner; when you pay for the meal, the waiter directs your attention to a small billboard on the table. The billboard says that if you follow the restaurant’s official account, you can get a ¥10 e-coupon for the meal. You therefore have the choice to either acquire the e-coupon or refuse it”. The design of the small billboards shown to the masculine design group and control group were different. For the masculine design group, the billboard used darker colors, traditional square, bold fonts, and the image of an eagle. For the control group, the billboard used lighter colors, rounded square, regular fonts, and the image of a small bird. The pretest showed that compared with the control group, the billboard with the masculine design was perceived as more masculine (t = 9.03, p < 0.001) and less feminine (t = −8.67, p < 0.001). However, the beauty degree of the two billboards shows no significant difference (t = −1.43, p = 0.15).

After reading the description of the scenario, participants answered questions about their e-coupon-using intentions (1 = not at all to 7 = very much). The three items to measure participants’ usage intention were “I would like to use this e-coupon”, “I want to use this e-coupon” and “I think this e-coupon is useful”. We then asked participants to rate how masculine/feminine/beautiful they found the design of the billboard (1 = not at all to 7 = very much). Finally, participants disclosed their gender and age.

4.5.2. Results

We first tested the manipulation. Consistent with the pretest, the billboard with the masculine design (M = 5.45, SD = 1.19, N = 80) was perceived as more masculine than the control group (M = 3.84, SD = 1.72, N = 80; t = 6.89, p < 0.001). Additionally, the billboard with the masculine design (M = 2.96, SD = 1.57, N = 80) was perceived as less feminine than the control group (M = 4.28, SD = 1.47, N = 80; t = −5.46, p < 0.001). Furthermore, there was no significant difference in the esthetic value between the masculine design of the billboard (M = 5.36, SD = 1.33, N = 80) and the control group (M = 5.20, SD = 1.26, N = 80; t = 0.793, p = 0.43). Therefore, our manipulation was successful.

Next, we carried out a 2 (design: masculine design vs. control) × 2 (participants’ gender: male vs. female) ANCOVA with e-coupon-using intention (α = 0.895) as the dependent variable and esthetic value of the e-coupons as a control variable. Results showed that the main effect of participants’ gender (F = 7.08, p = 0.01) and masculine design (F = 4.00, p = 0.047) were significant. Women’s e-coupon-using intention (M = 6.36, SD = 0.77, N = 73) was higher than men’s (M = 6.06, SD = 0.86, N = 87), providing more support for H1. Additionally, we found that participants’ e-coupon-using intention in the masculine design group (M = 6.34, SD = 0.69, N = 80) was higher than that in control group (M = 6.05, SD = 0.94, N = 80).

Importantly, the interaction effect of masculine design and participants’ gender was significant (F = 18.74, p < 0.001; see Figure 3). Consistent with H5, for men, the e-coupon-using intention in the masculine-design group (M = 6.44, SD = 0.55, N = 45) was significantly higher than that in the control group (M = 5.64, SD = 0.94, N = 42; t = 4.878, p < 0.001); in contrast, for women, there was no significant difference between the masculine-design group (M = 6.20, SD = 0.82, N = 35) and the control group (M = 6.50, SD = 0.70, N = 38; t = −1.688, p = 0.10).

4.5.3. Discussion

The results from study 5 were consistent with our H5 that, compared with women, men are more likely to show increased e-coupon-using intention when the association between the e-coupon and femininity is weakened. Study 5 measured consumers’ e-coupon-using intention after their purchasing in the restaurant. The findings identify the masculine design of e-coupons as a managerially relevant boundary condition and suggest that perhaps men would be willing to use e-coupons if the feminine association attached to e-coupon-using behaviors was altered.

5. Discussion and Conclusions

5.1. Conclusions

This study uses real-data analysis, online surveys and experiments to show that men are less likely to use e-coupons than women and offer a novel explanation for this phenomenon, namely the coupon–feminine stereotype. Because of this stereotype, e-coupon-using behaviors are perceived as inconsistent with men’s gender identity. When men’s masculinity is threatened by gender cues, they are more likely to avoid e-coupon-using behaviors. Because men’s reluctance to use e-coupons is due to the coupon–feminine stereotype and the need to safeguard their masculine identity, we propose two boundary conditions that would mitigate this negative relationship: one being when male consumers’ masculine identity is affirmed, and the other when the association between e-coupon and femininity is weakened. The results of the hypotheses tests are shown in

Table 2. Hypotheses testing.

Hypothesis	Hypothetical Content	Study/Method	Result
H1	When facing e-coupon promotions, males are less likely than females to show e-coupon-using intentions.	Study 1; Real-data analysis	Supported
H2	E-coupon users are more likely to be regarded as feminine than those who do not use e-coupons.	Study 2; Experiment	Supported
H3	Gender identity threat mediates the effect of gender on e-coupon-using intention.	Study 3; Online survey	Supported
H4	Affirmation of masculine identity moderates the effect of gender on e-coupon-using intention. When masculine identity is affirmed, men are more likely to show increased e-coupon-using intention, whereas for women, there is no significant difference.	Study 4; Experiment	Supported
H5	The association between e-coupons and femininity moderates the effect of gender on e-coupon-using intention. When the association between e-coupons and femininity is weakened, men are more likely to show increased e-coupon-using intention, whereas for women, there is no significant difference.	Study 5; Experiment	Supported

.

There are differences in the behavior of men and women during the process of online shopping [95,96,97]. Several research studies suggest that the reason for the differences in online shopping behavior between men and women is due to variations in their attitudes towards online shopping [95,96]. Previous research revealed that female consumers were more likely to use coupons than male consumers [16]. Hasan [95] found that gender affects consumers’ online shopping attitudes based on different components such as cognition, effect, and behavior. Akman and Turkmen [10] suggested that there was a gender difference in the dimension of value perception and search attitudes towards digital discount coupons. The conclusions in this research further confirm these findings in the literature. We prove that male consumers are more likely to avoid e-coupon-using behaviors.

Additionally, this paper is consistent with prior research that men are more likely to distinguish themselves from women through behaviors to avoid being associated with a feminine identity [75,76]. Plenty of studies demonstrated that product gendering is prevalent, and males were more likely than females to purchase gender-congruent products [67,78]. However, our research establishes the psychological mechanisms based on self-congruence theory and gender identity theory that impact consumers’ e-coupon-using behaviors. Due to the existence of the coupon–feminine stereotype, when male consumers decide whether to use coupons, internal gender-identity pressure and external social norm threat would occur. Being afraid of associations with femininity, male consumers tend to convince themselves that it is improper for them to use e-coupons in order to keep self-image congruence. Thus, we propose that an important explanation for men’s reluctance to acquire and use coupons is the association of e-coupons as feminine, such that using e-coupons would make men appear more feminine in their behaviors.

5.2. Theoretical Contributions

This paper explains the gender difference in e-coupon usage from the novel perspective of the coupon–feminine stereotype. Extent literature has preliminarily examined and explained the difference between men and women in terms of coupon usage from the lens of perceived household duty and personal characteristics [16,17]. Household-related tasks are widely considered as women’s duty in multiple cultures [20], and women are considered to be more willing to save money than men [15]. Here, we offer a new and important explanation from the perspective of masculinity and femininity. Specifically, we argue that men are less likely to use e-coupons because they wish to avoid being associated with the feminine stereotype. The acquirement and use of e-coupons would threaten the male gender identity.

This work also explores the boundary conditions under which men would be amenable to acquiring and using coupons. Although men are less likely to use e-coupons, there are two contextual factors that would mitigate this negative relationship. Additionally, these contextual factors will not decrease women’s e-coupon-using behaviors. First, when their masculinity is affirmed, male consumers’ willingness to acquire and use e-coupons would be enhanced. Second, if there is a lower level of association between e-coupon use and femininity, male consumers would be more motivated to acquire and use e-coupons. Through revealing the contextual factors of the relationship between gender and e-coupon usage, our work enriches the literature on coupon promotions.

Finally, our research contributes to the literature on self-congruence theory and gender identity theory by examining the link between gender identity and e-coupon usage. Previous studies have proposed that gender identity can influence consumer behavior and the response to marketing strategies [57,75]. For example, there are links between gender identity and brand response [98], sustainable consumption [57], consumption of advertising [99] and product selection [67]. Our study establishes a link between gender identity and e-coupon promotion. We establish the psychological process related with stereotypes and gender identity that impacts consumers’ e-coupon-using behaviors. Due to the association between e-coupons and femininity, men are reluctant to use e-coupons in order to keep self-image congruence.

5.3. Managerial Implications

Given the challenges of e-coupon redemption and usage [6,7,9], several managerial implications can be proposed based on our findings.

Firstly, e-coupon-using is often perceived as feminine. Retailers or marketers need to take actions to break this stereotype and prejudice. For example, the beliefs that e-coupon use is wise behavior and that an increasing number of male users are willing to use e-coupons should be communicated to consumers. Retailers can also encourage male consumers to share or recommend e-coupons, to influence more other male consumers. Furthermore, e-commerce platforms can create masculine names for promotion activities, such as “Boy’s Day”, if they wish to attract male consumers.

Secondly, the e-coupon design can weaken the association between e-coupon use and femininity. Retailers or marketers should pay extra attention to e-coupon designs that have obvious gender hints. For example, retailers can avoid incorporating feminine factors (e.g., pink font or richly colored flowers) to the e-coupon design if they intend to attract male consumers. In addition, marketers can adopt neutral and universal designs without specifically emphasizing gender attributes. If the product positioning is male consumers, retailers can use dark colors, bold fonts, and male-focused symbols to make the e-coupon designs appear more masculine.

Thirdly, affirming male users’ gender identity is effective. Situational factors, such as gender cues that affirm gender identity, can be used to encourage men to acquire and use e-coupons. For example, when distributing or promoting e-coupons, retailers can use nicknames such as “hello, tough guy” to help consumers affirm their masculine identity.

Furthermore, retailers must adjust the redeeming situation and process according to men’s preferences. For example, since men are more likely to prevent e-coupon-using behaviors in a public versus a private context, retailers should reduce the face-to-face situations to redeem e-coupons. Additionally, retailers must reduce the processes of redeeming coupons, reducing male consumers’ resistance to e-coupons.

5.4. Limitations and Future Research

There are several limitations in this research. First of all, this paper only investigated two boundary conditions, namely masculinity affirmation and masculine design of e-coupons. Second, the data and findings of this study were obtained from Chinese participants. Although prior research based on different cultural backgrounds has examined the mechanism of feminine stereotypes [57,75], gender may have an alternative impact on e-coupon-using behaviors within other countries. Third, our research did not categorize e-coupon-using behaviors. We did not consider whether participants used the e-coupons for themselves or for others. Fourth, our work did not discuss the e-coupon-using behaviors among different generations. Fifth, study 2 used the supermarket as the e-coupon-using environment. Different shopping environments may alter the result of consumers’ e-coupon-using behaviors.

There are several directions that future research can focus on. First, other boundary conditions of consumers’ e-coupon-using behaviors can be further revealed for providing managerial contributions to brand managers. With the development of online purchasing, enterprises should seriously judge the e-coupon-using behaviors of male consumers and design proper e-coupons for them to increase the sales. Second, future studies may consider different conditions to categorize such behaviors into online e-coupon usage and offline e-coupon usage. More field studies or real-data analysis can be used to increase external validity. Third, future research can consider more situations of gender differences for e-coupon use, such as e-coupons for hedonic products/services and e-coupons for utilitarian products/services, as well as e-coupon use for themselves or for others. Fourth, future studies may shed light on the behavior differences among different generations. Fifth, the shopping environment may serve as a critical boundary condition in our literature. Future research can investigate such elements.