Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is characterized by early-appearing social communication deficits, with genetic and environmental factors potentially playing a role in its etiology, which remains largely unknown. During pregnancy, certain deficiencies in critical nutrients are mainly associated with central nervous system impairment. The vitamin B9 (folate) is primarily related to one-carbon and methionine metabolism, participating in methyl donor generation. In addition, supplementation with folic acid (FA) is recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO) in the first three gestational months to prevent neural tube defects. Vitamin B12 is related to folate regeneration, converting it into an active form. Deficiencies in this vitamin have a negative impact on cognitive function and brain development since it is involved in myelin synthesis. Vitamin D is intimately associated with Ca2+ levels, acting in bone development and calcium-dependent signaling. This vitamin is associated with ASD at several levels since it has a relation with ASD genes and oxidative stress environment. This review carries the recent literature about the role of folate, vitamin B12, and vitamin D in ASD. In addition, we discuss the possible impact of nutrient deficiency or hypersupplementation during fetal development. On the other hand, we explore the biases of vitamin supplementation studies such as the loss of participants in retrospective studies, as well as multiple variants that are not considered in the conclusion, like dietary intake or auto-medication during pregnancy. In this regard, we aim to contribute to the discussion about the role of vitamins in ASD currency, but also in pregnancy and fetal development as well. Furthermore, stress during pregnancy can be an ASD predisposition, with cortisol as a regulator. In this view, we propose that cortisol is the bridge of susceptibility between vitamin disorders and ASD prevalence.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Availability of Data and Material
Not applicable.
References
Adams J, Audhya T, Geis E et al (2018) Comprehensive nutritional and dietary intervention for autism spectrum disorder—a randomized, controlled 12-month trial. Nutrients 10:369. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10030369
Agarwala S, Ramachandra NB (2021) Role of CNTNAP2 in autism manifestation outlines the regulation of signaling between neurons at the synapse. Egypt J Med Hum Genet 22:22. https://doi.org/10.1186/s43042-021-00138-z
Ali A, Cui X, Eyles D (2018) Developmental vitamin D deficiency and autism: putative pathogenic mechanisms. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 175:108–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsbmb.2016.12.018
Allen LH (2012) Vitamin B-12. Adv Nutr 3:54–55. https://doi.org/10.3945/an.111.001370
Allen RH, Stablzr SP, Savage DG, Lindenbaum1 J (1993) Mabolic abnormalities in cobalanin (vitamin B12) and folate deficiency. https://doi.org/10.1096/fasebj.7.14.7901104
Alpert JS (2021) Autism: a spectrum disorder. Am J Med 134:701–702. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2020.10.022
Asperger H (1944) Die „Autistischen Psychopathen” im Kindesalter. Arch Psychiatr Nervenkr 117:76–136. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01837709
Ba-Ali S, Brøndsted AE, Andersen HU et al (2019) Assessment of diurnal melatonin, cortisol, activity, and sleep−wake cycle in patients with and without diabetic retinopathy. Sleep Med 54:35–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2018.10.018
Baczyk D, Kingdom JCP, Uhlén P (2011) Calcium signaling in placenta. Cell Calcium 49:350–356. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceca.2010.12.003
Bailey LB, Stover PJ, McNulty H et al (2015) Biomarkers of nutrition for development—folate review. J Nutr 145:1636S-1680S. https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.114.206599
Baio J, Wiggins L, Christensen DL et al (2018) Prevalence of autism spectrum disorder among children aged 8 years — autism and developmental disabilities monitoring network, 11 Sites, United States, 2014. MMWR Surveill Summ 67:1–23. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.ss6706a1
Bärebring L, Bullarbo M, Glantz A et al (2016) Preeclampsia and blood pressure trajectory during pregnancy in relation to vitamin D status. PLoS ONE 11:e0152198. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0152198
Bärebring L, O’Connell M, Winkvist A et al (2019) Serum cortisol and vitamin D status are independently associated with blood pressure in pregnancy. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 189:259–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.01.019
Belardo A, Gevi F, Zolla L (2019) The concomitant lower concentrations of vitamins B6, B9 and B12 may cause methylation deficiency in autistic children. J Nutr Biochem 70:38–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnutbio.2019.04.004
Berridge MJ (2018) Vitamin D deficiency: infertility and neurodevelopmental diseases (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, autism, and schizophrenia). Am J Physiol Physiol 314:C135–C151. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpcell.00188.2017
Betancur C (2011) Etiological heterogeneity in autism spectrum disorders: more than 100 genetic and genomic disorders and still counting. Brain Res 1380:42–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2010.11.078
Bikle DD (2020) Vitamin D: newer concepts of its metabolism and function at the basic and clinical level. J Endocr Soc 4. https://doi.org/10.1210/jendso/bvz038
Blanco G, Mercer RW (1998) Isozymes of the Na-K-ATPase: heterogeneity in structure, diversity infuncti on. Am J Physiol Physiol 275:F633–F650. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajprenal.1998.275.5.F633
Blaxill MF (2004) What’s going on? The question of time trends in autism. Public Health Rep 119:536–551. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phr.2004.09.003
Brasil FB, Amarante LH, de Oliveira MR (2017) Maternal folic acid consumption during gestation and its long-term effects on offspring’s liver: a systematic review. Rev Bras Saúde Matern Infant 17:7–15. https://doi.org/10.1590/1806-93042017000100002
Brown B, Wright C (2020) Safety and efficacy of supplements in pregnancy. Nutr Rev 78:813–826. https://doi.org/10.1093/nutrit/nuz101
Burdge GC, Lillycrop KA (2010) Nutrition, epigenetics, and developmental plasticity: implications for understanding human disease. Annu Rev Nutr 30:315–339. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nutr.012809.104751
Cannell JJ (2017) Vitamin D and autism, what’s new? Rev Endocr Metab Disord 18:183–193. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11154-017-9409-0
Caudill MA (2010) Folate bioavailability: implications for establishing dietary recommendations and optimizing status. Am J Clin Nutr 91:1455S-1460S. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.2010.28674E
Chango A, Emery-Fillon N, de Courcy GP et al (2000) A polymorphism (80G->A) in the reduced folate carrier gene and its associations with folate status and homocysteinemia. Mol Genet Metab 70:310–315. https://doi.org/10.1006/mgme.2000.3034
Chaste P, Leboyer M (2012) Autism risk factors: genes, environment, and gene-environment interactions. Dialogues Clin Neurosci 14:281–292. https://doi.org/10.31887/DCNS.2012.14.3/pchaste
Copp AJ, Stanier P, DE Greene N (2013) Neural tube defects: recent advances, unsolved questions, and controversies. Lancet Neurol 12:799–810. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(13)70110-8
Cornell J, Salinas S, Huang H-Y, Zhou M (2022) Microglia regulation of synaptic plasticity and learning and memory. Neural Regen Res 17:705. https://doi.org/10.4103/1673-5374.322423
Das JK, Lassi ZS, Hoodbhoy Z, Salam RA (2018) Nutrition for the next generation: older children and adolescents. Ann Nutr Metab 72:56–64. https://doi.org/10.1159/000487385
de Giambattista C, Ventura P, Trerotoli P et al (2019) Subtyping the autism spectrum disorder: comparison of children with high functioning autism and asperger syndrome. J Autism Dev Disord 49:138–150. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-018-3689-4
de Jager W (2005) A parent’s guide to Asperger’s syndrome and high-functioning autism — how to meet the challenge and help your child thrive by Sally Ozonoff, Geraldine Dawson and James Mcpartland. J Child Adolesc Ment Heal 17:79–79. https://doi.org/10.2989/17280580509486604
de Marchi FO, Cruz FF, Menezes FP, et al (2019) P2X7R and PANX-1 channel relevance in a zebrafi shlarvae copper-induced infl ammati on model. Comp Biochem Physiol Part - C Toxicol Pharmacol 223:62–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpc.2019.05.012
Durand CM, Betancur C, Boeckers TM et al (2007) Mutations in the gene encoding the synaptic scaffolding protein SHANK3 are associated with autism spectrum disorders. Nat Genet 39:25–27. https://doi.org/10.1038/ng1933
Eussen SJPM (2005) Oral cyanocobalamin supplementation in older people with vitamin B12 deficiency. Arch Intern Med 165:1167. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.165.10.1167
Feng J, Shan L, Du L et al (2017) Clinical improvement following vitamin D3 supplementation in autism spectrum disorder. Nutr Neurosci 20:284–290. https://doi.org/10.1080/1028415X.2015.1123847
Filice F, Vörckel KJ, Sungur AÖ et al (2016) Reduction in parvalbumin expression not loss of the parvalbumin-expressing GABA interneuron subpopulation in genetic parvalbumin and shank mouse models of autism. Mol Brain 9:10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13041-016-0192-8
Froese DS, Fowler B, Baumgartner MR (2019) Vitamin B 12, folate, and the methionine remethylation cycle—biochemistry, pathways, and regulation. J Inherit Metab Dis 42:673–685. https://doi.org/10.1002/jimd.12009
Gale CR, Robinson SM, Harvey NC et al (2008) Maternal vitamin D status during pregnancy and child outcomes. Eur J Clin Nutr 62:68–77. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602680
Gao L, Liu X, Yu L et al (2017) Folic acid exerts antidepressant effects by upregulating brain-derived neurotrophic factor and glutamate receptor 1 expression in brain. NeuroReport 28:1078–1084. https://doi.org/10.1097/WNR.0000000000000887
Georgieff MK, Ramel SE, Cusick SE (2018) Nutritional influences on brain development. Acta Paediatr 107:1310–1321. https://doi.org/10.1111/apa.14287
Geschwind DH, State MW (2015) Gene hunting in autism spectrum disorder: on the path to precision medicine. Lancet Neurol 14:1109–1120. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(15)00044-7
Ghezzo A, Visconti P, Abruzzo PM et al (2013) Oxidative stress and erythrocyte membrane alterations in children with autism: correlation with clinical features. PLoS ONE 8:e66418. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0066418
Green R, Allen LH, Brito A (2017) Vitamin B 12 deficiency. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrdp.2017.40
Groves NJ, McGrath JJ, Burne THJ (2014) Vitamin D as a neurosteroid affecting the developing and adult brain. Annu Rev Nutr 34:117–141. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-nutr-071813-105557
Haas DM, Marsh DJ, Dang DT et al (2018) Prescription and other medication use in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 131:789–798. https://doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0000000000002579
Hakkola J, Hukkanen J, Turpeinen M, Pelkonen O (2020) Inhibition and induction of CYP enzymes in humans: an update. Arch Toxicol 94:3671–3722. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00204-020-02936-7
Han X, Wang B, Jin D et al (2021) Precise dose of folic acid supplementation is essential for embryonic heart development in zebrafish. Biology (basel) 11:28. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology11010028
Hollis BW, Johnson D, Hulsey TC et al (2011) Vitamin D supplementation during pregnancy: double-blind, randomized clinical trial of safety and effectiveness. J Bone Miner Res 26:2341–2357. https://doi.org/10.1002/jbmr.463
Howe CG, Cox B, Fore R et al (2020) Maternal gestational diabetes mellitus and newborn dna methylation: findings from the pregnancy and childhood epigenetics consortium. Diabetes Care 43:98–105. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc19-0524
Hoxha B, Hoxha M, Domi E et al (2021) Folic acid and autism: a systematic review of the current state of knowledge. Cells 10:1976. https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10081976
Jain SK, Micinski D (2013) Vitamin D upregulates glutamate cysteine ligase and glutathione reductase, and GSH formation, and decreases ROS and MCP-1 and IL-8 secretion in high-glucose exposed U937 monocytes. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 437:7–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2013.06.004
Jia F, Wang B, Shan L et al (2015) Core symptoms of autism improved after vitamin D supplementation. Pediatrics 135:e196–e198. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2014-2121
Jung C, Ho JT, Torpy DJ et al (2011) A longitudinal study of plasma and urinary cortisol in pregnancy and postpartum. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 96:1533–1540. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2010-2395
Kanner L (1943) Autistic disturbances of affective contact. Nerv Child 2:217–250
Kaplan JH (2002) Biochemistry of Na, K-ATPase. Annu Rev Biochem 71:511–535. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biochem.71.102201.141218
Kodak T, Bergmann S (2020) Autism spectrum disorder. Pediatr Clin North Am 67:525–535. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcl.2020.02.007
Koklesova L, Mazurakova A, Samec M et al (2021) Homocysteine metabolism as the target for predictive medical approach, disease prevention, prognosis, and treatments tailored to the person. EPMA J 12:477–505. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13167-021-00263-0
Krishnaveni GV, Veena SR, Johnson M et al (2020) Maternal B12, folate and homocysteine concentrations and offspring cortisol and cardiovascular responses to stress. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 105:e2591–e2599. https://doi.org/10.1210/clinem/dgz114
Kucha W, Seifu D, Tirsit A et al (2022) Folate, vitamin B12, and homocysteine levels in women with neural tube defect-affected pregnancy in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Front Nutr 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2022.873900
Kurup ARK, Kurup PA (2002) Membrane Na(+)-K+ ATPase mediated cascade in bipolar mood disorder, major depressive disorder, and schizophrenia–relationship to hemispheric dominance. Int J Neurosci 112:965–982. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207450290025978
Liu H, Huang X, Xu J et al (2021) Dissection of the relationship between anxiety and stereotyped self-grooming using the Shank3B mutant autistic model, acute stress model and chronic pain model. Neurobiol Stress 15:100417. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ynstr.2021.100417
Liu PT, Stenger S, Li H et al (2006) Toll-like receptor triggering of a Vitamin D-mediated human antimicrobial response. Science 311(80- ):1770–1773. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1123933
Lord C, Elsabbagh M, Baird G, Veenstra-vanderweele J (2018) Seminar autism spectrum disorder. Lancet 392:508–520. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31129-2
Máčová L, Bičíková M, Ostatníková D et al (2017) Vitamin D, neurosteroids and autism. Physiol Res S333–S340. https://doi.org/10.33549/physiolres.933721
Makinde HM, Just TB, Gadhvi GT et al (2020) Microglia adopt longitudinal transcriptional changes after traumatic brain injury. J Surg Res 246:113–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jss.2019.08.024
Manolio TA, Collins FS, Cox NJ et al (2009) Finding the missing heritability of complex diseases. Nature 461:747–753. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature08494
Mansur JL, Oliveri B, Giacoia E et al (2022) Vitamin D: before, during and after pregnancy: effect on neonates and children. Nutrients 14:1900. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14091900
Mattson MP, Shea TB (2003) Folate and homocysteine metabolism in neural plasticity and neurodegenerative disorders. Trends Neurosci 26:137–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-2236(03)00032-8
Mazahery H, Conlon CA, Beck KL et al (2019) A randomised controlled trial of vitamin D and omega-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in the treatment of irritability and hyperactivity among children with autism spectrum disorder. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 187:9–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.10.017
Merhi Z, Doswell A, Krebs K, Cipolla M (2014) Vitamin D alters genes involved in follicular development and steroidogenesis in human cumulus granulosa cells. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 99:E1137–E1145. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2013-4161
Messina S, De Simone G, Ascenzi P (2019) Cysteine-based regulation of redox-sensitive Ras small GTPases. Redox Biol 26:101282
Monteiro P, Feng G (2017) SHANK proteins: roles at the synapse and in autism spectrum disorder. Nat Rev Neurosci 18:147–157. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn.2016.183
Moridi I, Chen A, Tal O, Tal R (2020) The association between vitamin D and anti-müllerian hormone: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrients 12:1567. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12061567
Muhsen M, Youngs J, Riu A et al (2021) Folic acid supplementation rescues valproic acid-induced developmental neurotoxicity and behavioral alterations in zebrafish embryos. Epilepsia 62:1689–1700. https://doi.org/10.1111/epi.16915
Nakai K, Fujii H, Kono K et al (2014) Vitamin D activates the Nrf2-Keap1 antioxidant pathway and ameliorates nephropathy in diabetic rats. Am J Hypertens 27:586–595. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajh/hpt160
Nardone S, Sams DS, Zito A et al (2017) Dysregulation of cortical neuron DNA methylation profile in autism spectrum disorder. Cereb Cortex 27:5739–5754. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhx250
Nissen J, Rasmussen LB, Ravn-Haren G et al (2014) Common variants in CYP2R1 and GC genes predict vitamin D concentrations in healthy danish children and adults. PLoS ONE 9:e89907. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0089907
Norman AW (2008) From vitamin D to hormone D: fundamentals of the vitamin D endocrine system essential for good health. Am J Clin Nutr 88:491S-499S. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/88.2.491S
Ousley O, Cermak T (2014) Autism spectrum disorder: defining dimensions and subgroups. Curr Dev Disord Reports 1:20–28. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40474-013-0003-1
Pawley N, Bishop NJ (2004) Prenatal and infant predictors of bone health: the influence of vitamin D. Am J Clin Nutr 80:1748S-1751S. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/80.6.1748S
Poot M, Beyer V, Schwaab I et al (2010) Disruption of CNTNAP2 and additional structural genome changes in a boy with speech delay and autism spectrum disorder. Neurogenetics 11:81–89. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10048-009-0205-1
Relton CL, Pearce MS, Parker L (2005) The influence of erythrocyte folate and serum vitamin B 12 status on birth weight. Br J Nutr 93:593–599. https://doi.org/10.1079/BJN20041395
Rinaldi C, Attanasio M, Valenti M et al (2021) Autism spectrum disorder and personality disorders: comorbidity and differential diagnosis. World J Psychiatry 11:1366–1386. https://doi.org/10.5498/wjp.v11.i12.1366
Ross AC, Manson JE, Abrams SA et al (2011) The 2011 dietary reference intakes for calcium and vitamin D: what dietetics practitioners need to know⁎⁎This article is a summary of the Institute of Medicine report entitled Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D, available at http://www.io. J Am Diet Assoc 111:524–527. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jada.2011.01.004
Rossignol DA, Frye RE (2012) Mitochondrial dysfunction in autism spectrum disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Mol Psychiatry 17:290–314. https://doi.org/10.1038/mp.2010.136
Rudick BJ, Ingles SA, Chung K et al (2014) Influence of vitamin D levels on in vitro fertilization outcomes in donor-recipient cycles. Fertil Steril 101:447–452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2013.10.008
Sable P, Randhir K, Kale A et al (2015) Maternal micronutrients and brain global methylation patterns in the offspring. Nutr Neurosci 18:30–36. https://doi.org/10.1179/1476830513Y.0000000097
Silveira JS, Ramires Júnior OV, Schmitz F et al (2022) Folic acid supplementation during pregnancy alters behavior in male rat offspring: nitrative stress and neuroinflammatory implications. Mol Neurobiol 59:2150–2170. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12035-022-02724-7
Siracusano M, Riccioni A, Abate R et al (2020) Vitamin D deficiency and autism spectrum disorder. Curr Pharm Des 26:2460–2474. https://doi.org/10.2174/1381612826666200415174311
Smolders J, Peelen E, Thewissen M et al (2009) The relevance of vitamin D receptor gene polymorphisms for vitamin D research in multiple sclerosis. Autoimmun Rev 8:621–626. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autrev.2009.02.009
Steluti J, Palchetti CZ, Miranda AM et al (2020) DNA methylation and one-carbon metabolism related nutrients and polymorphisms: analysis after mandatory flour fortification with folic acid. Br J Nutr 123:23–29. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114519002526
Takahashi-Iñiguez T, García-Hernandez E, Arreguín-Espinosa R, Flores ME (2012) Role of vitamin B12 on methylmalonyl-CoA mutase activity. J Zhejiang Univ Sci B 13:423–437. https://doi.org/10.1631/jzus.B1100329
Tidmarsh L, Volkmar FR (2003) Diagnosis and epidemiology of autism spectrum disorders. Can J Psychiatry 48:517–525. https://doi.org/10.1177/070674370304800803
Trifonova EA, Klimenko AI, Mustafin ZS et al (2019) The mTOR signaling pathway activity and vitamin D availability control the expression of most autism predisposition genes. Int J Mol Sci 20:6332. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20246332
Valentin M, Coste Mazeau P, Zerah M et al (2018) Acid folic and pregnancy: a mandatory supplementation. Ann Endocrinol (paris) 79:91–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ando.2017.10.001
Vernes SC, Newbury DF, Abrahams BS et al (2008) A functional genetic link between distinct developmental language disorders. N Engl J Med 359:2337–2345. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0802828
Vianna P, Bauer ME, Dornfeld D, Chies JAB (2011) Distress conditions during pregnancy may lead to pre-eclampsia by increasing cortisol levels and altering lymphocyte sensitivity to glucocorticoids. Med Hypotheses 77:188–191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2011.04.007
Walker VP, Zhang X, Rastegar I et al (2011) Cord blood vitamin D status impacts innate immune responses. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 96:1835–1843. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2010-1559
Wang G, Hu FB, Mistry KB et al (2016) Association between maternal prepregnancy body mass index and plasma folate concentrations with child metabolic health. JAMA Pediatr 170:e160845. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2016.0845
Wang X, McCoy PA, Rodriguiz RM et al (2011) Synaptic dysfunction and abnormal behaviors in mice lacking major isoforms of Shank3. Hum Mol Genet 20:3093–3108. https://doi.org/10.1093/hmg/ddr212
Wang Z, Ding R, Wang J (2020) The association between vitamin D status and autism spectrum disorder (ASD): a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrients 13:86. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13010086
World Health Organization (2007) Standards for maternal and neonatal care. WHO Libr 1–72
World Health Organization, Williams AL, van Drongelen W, et al (2012) Guideline : daily iron and folicacid supplementati on in pregnant women. World Heal Organ 46:323–329
Xu B, Lang L-M, Li S-Z et al (2019) Microglia activated by excess cortisol induce HMGB1 acetylation and neuroinflammation in the hippocampal DG region of mice following cold exposure. Biomolecules 9:426. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom9090426
Xu Z-X, Kim GH, Tan J-W et al (2020) Elevated protein synthesis in microglia causes autism-like synaptic and behavioral aberrations. Nat Commun 11:1797. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-15530-3
Yang H, Wu X (2020) The correlation between vitamin D receptor (VDR) gene polymorphisms and autism: a meta-analysis. J Mol Neurosci 70:260–268. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12031-019-01464-z
Yates NJ, Tesic D, Feindel KW et al (2018) Vitamin D is crucial for maternal care and offspring social behaviour in rats. J Endocrinol 237:73–85. https://doi.org/10.1530/JOE-18-0008
Yeargin-Allsopp M, Rice C, Karapurkar T et al (2003) Prevalence of autism in a US Metropolitan Area. JAMA 289:49. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.289.1.49
Zang L, Ma Y, Huang W et al (2019) Dietary Lactobacillus plantarum ST-III alleviates the toxic effects of triclosan on zebrafish (Danio rerio) via gut microbiota modulation. Fish Shellfish Immunol 84:1157–1169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsi.2018.11.007
Zeidan J, Fombonne E, Scorah J et al (2022) Global prevalence of autism: a systematic review update. Autism Res 15:778–790. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.2696
Zhou X, Feliciano P, Shu C et al (2022) Integrating de novo and inherited variants in 42,607 autism cases identifies mutations in new moderate-risk genes. Nat Genet 54:1305–1319. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41588-022-01148-2
Zhu J, Chen C, Lu L et al (2020) Intakes of folate, vitamin B6, and vitamin B12 in relation to diabetes incidence among American young adults: a 30-year follow-up study. Diabetes Care 43:2426–2434. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc20-0828
Zinke K, Fries E, Kliegel M et al (2010) Children with high-functioning autism show a normal cortisol awakening response (CAR). Psychoneuroendocrinology 35:1578–1582. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2010.03.009
Zweier C, de Jong EK, Zweier M et al (2009) CNTNAP2 and NRXN1 are mutated in autosomal-recessive Pitt-Hopkins-like mental retardation and determine the level of a common synaptic protein in Drosophila. Am J Hum Genet 85:655–666. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajhg.2009.10.004
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico and Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul.
Funding
Funding was provided by Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq), Instituto Nacional Saúde Cerebral (INSC, No 406020/2022-1)/CNPq and Edital Universal (No 405128/2021-5)/CNPq, Brazil.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
DG, GP, and AR conceptualized the review and prepared the manuscript equally. AW structured and reviewed the manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate
Not applicable.
Consent for Publication
All authors consent on the publication of this review article.
Competing Interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Gusso, D., Prauchner, G.R.K., Rieder, A.S. et al. Biological Pathways Associated with Vitamins in Autism Spectrum Disorder. Neurotox Res 41, 730–740 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12640-023-00674-z
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12640-023-00674-z