Abstract
Introduction
Parents who do not feel responsible for parent–child sexual communication (PCSC) may be missing out on opportunities to engage in PCSC that has protective effects on children’s sexual well-being. Using the theory of planned behavior and feminist theory, we explore how parents’ PCSC attitudes and demographics are associated with perceptions of who is responsible for PCSC.
Methods
Using data collected in December 2019 through January 2020 from parents of 6–11-year-olds, we ran chi-square tests, ANOVAs, and logistic regressions to determine how parent PCSC attitudes and other parental factors are associated with parent perceptions of who is responsible for PCSC.
Results
The majority of parents saw themselves and/or a co-parent as primarily responsible for PCSC about facts and values. Bivariately, parents with higher scores of perceived positive PCSC outcomes, subjective norms, and self-efficacy were more likely to believe that they were solely responsible or shared an equal responsibility for PCSC. Multivariately, mothers and genderqueer parents, parents with the same gender as their child, and parents whose co-parent was less involved in parenting were more likely to report being solely responsible for PCSC.
Conclusions
Most parents saw themselves or a partner as most responsible for PCSC; parent and child gender were the strongest determinants of parents’ perceptions of PCSC responsibility.
Policy Implications
These results suggest that it may be more effective for parent education to challenge and deconstruct traditional gender roles versus focusing on self-efficacy, norms, and perceived outcomes if we want to increase parents’ perceived PCSC responsibility, especially within different-gender parent–child dyads.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Availability of Data and Material
Not applicable.
Code Availability
Not applicable.
References
Ajzen, I. (1985). From intentions to actions: A theory of planned behavior. In J. Kuhl & J. Beckmann (Eds.), Action control: From cognition to behavior (pp. 11–39). Springer-Verlag.
Allen, K. R. (2016). Feminist theory in family studies: History, reflection, and critique. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 8(2), 207–224. https://doi.org/10.1111/jftr.12133
Allen, K. R. (2023). Feminist theory, method, and praxis: Toward a critical consciousness for family and close relationship scholars. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 40(3), 899–936. https://doi.org/10.1177/02654075211065779
Allen, K. R., & Henderson, A. C. (2022). Family theorizing for social justice: A critical praxis. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 14(3), 364–383. https://doi.org/10.1111/jftr.12450
Askelson, N. M., Campo, S., Smith, S., Lowe, J. B., Dennis, L. K., & Andsager, J. (2011). The birds, the bees, and the HPVs: What drives mothers’ intentions to use the HPV vaccination as a chance to talk about sex? Journal of Pediatric Health Care, 25(3), 162–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pedhc.2010.01.001
Astle, S. M., & Anders, K. M. (2022). The relationship between topic-specific quality of parent–child sexual communication and measures of sexual self-concept and sexual subjectivity. The Journal of Sex Research, Advance Online Publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2022.2081312
Astle, S., McAllister, P., Emanuels, S., Rogers, J., Toews, M., & Yazedjian, A. (2022b). Just be open about it or turn up the radio: A qualitative analysis of parent-child sexual communication experiences in adolescence. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 19(1), 133–146. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-020-00530-1
Astle, S., McAllister, P., & Pariera, K. (2022a). Self of the parent: An expanded social cognitive perspective on parent–child sexual communication. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 14(3), 502–519. https://doi.org/10.1111/jftr.12452
Astle, S., Toews, M., Topham, G., & Vennum, A. (2021). To talk or not to talk: An analysis of parents’ intentions to talk with children about different sexual topics using the theory of planned behavior. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-021-00587-6
Beckett, M. K., Elliott, M. N., Martino, S., Kanouse, D. E., Corona, R., Klein, D. J., & Schuster, M. A. (2010). Timing of parent and child communication about sexuality relative to children’s sexual behaviors. Pediatrics, 125(1), 34–42. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2009-0806
Bishop, M. D., Mallory, A. B., Gessner, M., Frost, D. M., & Russell, S. T. (2021). School-based sexuality education experiences across three generations of sexual minority people. The Journal of Sex Research, 58(5), 648–658. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2020.1767024
Bonander, A. (2016). Family communication about sex: A qualitative analysis of gay and lesbian parents’ parent-child sex communication [Doctoral dissertation, University of Nebraska]. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.
Boyas, J. F., Stauss, K. A., & Murphy-Erby, Y. (2012). Predictors of frequency of sexual health communication: Perceptions from early adolescent youth in rural Arkansas. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 29(4), 267–284. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-012-0264-2
Brown, D. L., Rosnick, C. B., Webb-Bradley, T., & Kirner, J. (2014). Does daddy know best? Exploring the relationship between paternal sexual communication and safe sex practices among African-American women. Sex Education, 14(3), 241–256. https://doi.org/10.1080/14681811.2013.868800
Byers, E. S., & Sears, H. A. (2012). Mothers who do and do not intend to discuss sexual health with their young adolescents. Family Relations, 61(5), 851–863. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3729.2012.00740.x
Byers, E. S., Sears, H. A., & Weaver, A. D. (2008). Parents’ reports of sexual communication with children in kindergarten to grade 8. Journal of Marriage and Family, 70(1), 86–96. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2007.00463.x
Cederbaum, J. A., & Hutchinson, M. K. (2016). Parent–child communication about abstinence and safer sex in parochial school families. Journal of HIV/AIDS & Social Services, 15(1), 48–68. https://doi.org/10.1080/15381501.2014.973135
Collins, C. L., Angera, J. L., & Latty, C. R. (2008). College aged females’ perceptions of their fathers as sexuality educators. Journal of Ethnographic & Qualitative Research, 2(2), 81–90.
Collins, P. H. (2004). Black sexual politics: African Americans, gender, and the new racism. Routledge.
DiIorio, C., Resnicow, K., Dudley, W. N., Thomas, S., Terry Wang, D., Van Marter, D. F., Manteuffel, B., & Lipana, J. (2000). Social cognitive factors associated with mother-adolescent communication about sex. Journal of Health Communication, 5(1), 41–51. https://doi.org/10.1080/108107300126740
Elia, J. P., & Tokunaga, J. (2015). Sexuality education: Implications for health, equity, and social justice in the United States. Health Education, 115(1), 105–120. https://doi.org/10.1108/HE-01-2014-0001
Elliott, S. (2010a). ‘If I could really say that and get away with it!’ Accountability and ambivalence in American parents’ sexuality lessons in the age of abstinence. Sex Education, 10(3), 239–250. https://doi.org/10.1080/14681811.2010.491630
Elliott, S. (2010b). Talking to teens about sex: Mothers negotiate resistance, discomfort, and ambivalence. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 7(4), 310–322. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-010-0023-0
El-Shaieb, M., & Wurtele, S. K. (2009). Parents’ plans to discuss sexuality with their young children. American Journal of Sexuality Education, 4(2), 103–115. https://doi.org/10.1080/15546120903001357
Erickson, R. J. (2005). Why emotion work matters: Sex, gender, and the division of household labor. Journal of Marriage and Family, 67(2), 337–351. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-2445.2005.00120.x
Estes, M. L. (2017). “If there’s one benefit, you’re not going to get pregnant”: The sexual miseducation of gay, lesbian, and bisexual individuals. Sex Roles, 77(9–10), 615–627. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-017-0749-8
Evans, R., Widman, L., Kamke, K., & Stewart, J. L. (2020). Gender differences in parents’ communication with their adolescent children about sexual risk and sex-positive topics. The Journal of Sex Research, 57(2), 177–188. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2019.1661345
Feinstein, B. A., Thomann, M., Coventry, R., Macapagal, K., Mustanski, B., & Newcomb, M. E. (2018). Gay and bisexual adolescent boys’ perspectives on parent–adolescent relationships and parenting practices related to teen sex and dating. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 47(6), 1825–1837. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-017-1057-7
Fisher, T. D., & Hall, R. G. (1988). A scale for the comparison of the sexual attitudes of adolescents and their parents. Journal of Sex Research, 24(1), 90–100. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224498809551400
Flores, D. D., Meanley, S. P., Bond, K. T., Agenor, M., Relf, M. V., & Barroso, J. V. (2020). Topics for inclusive parent-child sex communication by gay, bisexual, queer youth. Behavioral Medicine, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1080/08964289.2019.1700481
Flores, D., Abboud, S., & Barroso, J. (2019). Hegemonic masculinity during parent-child sex communication with sexual minority male adolescents. American Journal of Sexuality Education, 14(4), 417–439. https://doi.org/10.1080/15546128.2019.1626312
Flores, D., & Barroso, J. (2017). 21st century parent–child sex communication in the United States: A process review. The Journal of Sex Research, 54(4–5), 532–548. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2016.1267693
Guilamo-Ramos, V., Bouris, A., Lee, J., McCarthy, K., Michael, S. L., Pitt-Barnes, S., & Dittus, P. (2012). Paternal influences on adolescent sexual risk behaviors: A structured literature review. Pediatrics, 130(5), e1313–e1325. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2011-2066
Guilamo-Ramos, V., Dittus, P., Jaccard, J., Goldberg, V., Casillas, E., & Bouris, A. (2006). The content and process of mother-adolescent communication about sex in Latino families. Social Work Research, 30(3), 169–181. https://doi.org/10.1093/swr/30.3.169
Guilamo-Ramos, V., Jaccard, J., Dittus, P., & Collins, S. (2008). Parent-adolescent communication about sexual intercourse: An analysis of maternal reluctance to communicate. Health Psychology, 27(6), 760–769. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013833
Hamon, R., & Smith, S. (2016). Exploring family theories. Oxford University Press.
Hassberg, A. H., Esparza, A., Baralt, L., & Alimahomed-Wilson, S. (2022). Narratives of gendered and racialized carework: Feminist faculty of color organizing during the pandemic. Journal of Feminist Scholarship, 21(21), 22–45. https://doi.org/10.23860/jfs.2022.21.6
Heller, J. R., & Johnson, H. L. (2010). What are parents really saying when they talk with their children about sexuality? American Journal of Sexuality Education, 5(2), 144–170. https://doi.org/10.1080/15546128.2010.491061
Hurst, J. L., Widman, L., Brasileiro, J., Maheux, A. J., Evans-Paulson, R., & Choukas-Bradley, S. (2023). Parents’ attitudes towards the content of sex education in the USA: Associations with religiosity and political orientation. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/14681811.2022.2162871
Hurst, J. L., Widman, L., Maheux, A. J., Evans-Paulson, R., Brasileiro, J., & Lipsey, N. (2021). Parent–child communication and adolescent sexual decision making: An application of family communication patterns theory. Journal of Family Psychology, 36(3), 449–457. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000916
Jaccard, J., Dittus, P. J., & Gordon, V. V. (2000). Parent-teen communication about premarital sex: Factors associated with the extent of communication. Journal of Adolescent Research, 15(2), 187–208. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558400152001
Jerman, P., & Constantine, N. A. (2010). Demographic and psychological predictors of parent–adolescent communication about sex: A representative statewide analysis. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39(10), 1164–1174. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-010-9546-1
LaSala, M. C., Fedor, J. P., Revere, E. J., & Carney, R. (2016). What parents and their gay and bisexual sons say about HIV prevention. Qualitative Health Research, 26(11), 1519–1530. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732315604588
Lindberg, L. D., Maddow-Zimet, I., & Boonstra, H. (2016). Changes in adolescents’ receipt of sex education, 2006–2013. Journal of Adolescent Health, 58(6), 621–627. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2016.02.004
Lippa, R. A. (2005). Sexual orientation and personality. Annual Review of Sex Research, 16(1), 119–153. https://doi.org/10.1080/10532528.2005.10559831
Lorber, J. (2018). The social construction of gender. In D. B. Grusky & S. Szelénjyi (Eds.), The inequality reader: Contemporary and foundational readings in race, class, and gender (pp. 318–325). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429494468-36
Lou, J.-H., Chen, S.-H., Yu, H.-Y., Lin, Y.-C., & Li, R.-H. (2010). Sexual cognitive predictors of sexual communication in junior college adolescents: Medical student perspectives. Journal of Nursing Research, 18(4), 290–298. https://doi.org/10.1097/JNR.0b013e3181fbe178
Making Caring Common Project. (2018). The talk: How adults can promote young people’s healthy relationships and prevent misogyny and sexual harassment. Harvard Graduate School of Education. https://mcc.gse.harvard.edu/reports/the-talk
Meneses, L. M., Orrell-Valente, J. K., Guendelman, S. R., Oman, D., & Irwin, C. E. (2006). Racial/ethnic differences in mother-daughter communication about sex. Journal of Adolescent Health, 39(1), 128–131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2005.08.005
Miller, K. S., Fasula, A. M., Dittus, P., Wiegand, R. E., Wyckoff, S. C., & McNair, L. (2009). Barriers and facilitators to maternal communication with preadolescents about age-relevant sexual topics. AIDS and Behavior, 13(2), 365–374. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-007-9324-6
Newcomb, M. E., Feinstein, B. A., Matson, M., Macapagal, K., & Mustanski, B. (2018). “I have no idea what’s going on out there:” Parents’ perspectives on promoting sexual health in lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender adolescents. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 15(2), 111–122. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-018-0326-0
Pariera, K. L. (2016). Barriers and prompts to parent-child sexual communication. Journal of Family Communication, 16(3), 277–283. https://doi.org/10.1080/15267431.2016.1181068
Pluhar, E. I., DiIorio, C. K., & McCarty, F. (2008). Correlates of sexuality communication among mothers and 6–12-year-old children. Child: Care, Health and Development, 34(3), 283–290. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2214.2007.00807.x
Regnerus, M. D. (2005). Talking about sex: Religion and patterns of parent–child communication about sex and contraception. The Sociological Quarterly, 46(1), 79–105. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1533-8525.2005.00005.x
Ritchwood, T. D., Peasant, C., Powell, T. W., Taggart, T., Corbie-Smith, G., & Akers, A. Y. (2018). Predictors of caregiver communication about reproductive and sexual health and sensitive sex topics. Journal of Family Issues, 39(8), 2207–2231. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X17741920
Robinson, K. H., Smith, E., & Davies, C. (2017). Responsibilities, tensions and ways forward: Parents’ perspectives on children’s sexuality education. Sex Education, 17(3), 333–347. https://doi.org/10.1080/14681811.2017.1301904
Rogers, A. A. (2017). Parent–adolescent sexual communication and adolescents’ sexual behaviors: A conceptual model and systematic review. Adolescent Research Review, 2(4), 293–313. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40894-016-0049-5
Rubinsky, V., & Cooke-Jackson, A. (2017). “Tell me something other than to use a condom and sex is scary”: Memorable messages women and gender minorities wish for and recall about sexual health. Women’s Studies in Communication, 40(4), 379–400. https://doi.org/10.1080/07491409.2017.1368761
Rudolph, J., & Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J. (2018). Parents as protectors: A qualitative study of parents’ views on child sexual abuse prevention. Child Abuse & Neglect, 85, 28–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.08.016
Sneed, C. D., Somoza, C. G., Jones, T., & Alfaro, S. (2013). Topics discussed with mothers and fathers for parent–child sex communication among African-American adolescents. Sex Education, 13(4), 450–458. https://doi.org/10.1080/14681811.2012.757548
Solebello, N., & Elliott, S. (2011). “We want them to be as heterosexual as possible”: Fathers talk about their teen children’s sexuality. Gender & Society, 25(3), 293–315. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243211403926
Stephens, D. P., & Phillips, L. D. (2003). Freaks, gold diggers, divas, and dykes: The sociohistorical development of adolescent African American women’s sexual scripts. Sexuality & Culture, 7(1), 3–49. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03159848
Sumontha, J., Farr, R. H., & Patterson, C. J. (2017). Children’s gender development: Associations with parental sexual orientation, division of labor, and gender ideology. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 4(4), 438–450. https://doi.org/10.1037/sgd0000242
Troth, A., & Peterson, C. C. (2000). Factors predicting safe-sex talk and condom use in early sexual relationships. Health Communication, 12(2), 195–218. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327027HC1202_5
Wallace, S. A., Townsend, T. G., Glasgow, Y. M., & Ojie, M. J. (2011). Gold diggers, video vixens, and jezebels: Stereotype images and substance use among urban African American Girls. Journal of Women’s Health, 20(9), 1315–1324. https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2010.2223
Warwick, R. M., Araya, A. C., Shumer, D. E., & Selkie, E. M. (2021). Transgender youths’ sexual health and education: A qualitative analysis. Journal of Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology, 35(2), 138–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpag.2021.09.011
Weiser, D. A., Lieway, M., Brown, R. D., Shrout, M. R., Russell, K. N., Weigel, D. J., & Evans, W. P. (2022). Parent communication about sexual and relationship violence: Promoting healthy relationships or reinforcing gender stereotypes? Family Relations, 71(1), 181–200. https://doi.org/10.1111/fare.12598
Widman, L., Choukas-Bradley, S., Noar, S. M., Nesi, J., & Garrett, K. (2016). Parent-adolescent sexual communication and adolescent safer sex behavior: A meta-analysis. JAMA Pediatrics, 170(1), 52–61. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2015.2731
Williams, A. A., Bryant, Z., & Carvell, C. (2019). Uncompensated emotional labor, racial battle fatigue, and (in) civility in digital spaces. Sociology Compass, 13(2), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1111/soc4.12658
Wilson, E. K., Dalberth, B. T., & Koo, H. P. (2010a). “We’re the heroes!”: Fathers’ perspectives on their role in protecting their preteenage children from sexual risk. Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health, 42(2), 117–124. https://doi.org/10.1363/4211710
Wilson, E. K., Dalberth, B. T., Koo, H. P., & Gard, J. C. (2010b). Parents’ perspectives on talking to preteenage children about sex. Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health, 42(1), 56–63. https://doi.org/10.1363/4205610
Wilson, E. K., & Koo, H. P. (2010). Mothers, fathers, sons, and daughters: Gender differences in factors associated with parent-child communication about sexual topics. Reproductive Health, 7, 31. https://doi.org/10.1186/1742-4755-7-31
Funding
Funding for this project was provided by Kansas State University’s College of Health and Human Sciences; the 2020 Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences Small Grant Program; and the Robert H. Poresky Assistantship. Research reported in this publication was supported by the National Institute of Mental Health of the NIH under Award Number 1F31MH126763 awarded to Julia Brasileiro.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics Approval
This project was approved by the Kansas State University Institutional Review Board.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Disclaimer
The content is solely the responsibility of the author and does not necessarily represent the official views of the NIH.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Astle, S., Brasileiro, J. Whose Job Is It Anyway? Parents’ Perspectives of Responsibilities for Educating Their Children About Sex. Sex Res Soc Policy (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-023-00898-w
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-023-00898-w