Abstract
The Mesolithic technology in Western Europe depicts the last cultural expressions and adaptations of hunter-gatherers before the adoption of Neolithic agro-pastoral practices. Many questions arise when investigating the timing, nature, and historical significance of the Mesolithic. The development of the Mesolithic culture is usually associated with the onset of milder environmental conditions at the beginning of the Holocene. Hunter-gatherer societies would have adopted new subsistence and territorial strategies in response to environmental changes, which would have consecutively impacted their technological system. This assertion considers the Mesolithic in South-western Europe as one homogeneous phenomenon and eludes the putative role that early Holocene climatic fluctuations may have played in hunter-gatherer organizations. In this study, we aimed at questioning the archaeological variability of the first Mesolithic by taking benefit from new data provided by recent excavations at La Baume de Monthiver (Comps-sur-Artuby, France). La Baume de Monthiver is a small rock shelter located along the Jabron Valley in the southern French pre-Alps. The rock shelter records several Mesolithic occupations documenting Sauveterrian technological traditions. By studying the Baume de Monthiver, we take the opportunity to explore the Sauveterrian in its longue durée and address the question of its diachronic variability. In this study, we investigated the M-B′ archaeological assemblage and question its homogeneity at the transition of the 10th- and 9th-millennium cal. BP. Our results document stable technological and subsistence practices before and after the climatic fluctuations at the end of the 10th-millennium cal. BP, supporting the hypothesis of well-adapted Mesolithic societies to the climatic “instability” characterizing the early Holocene.
1 Introduction
The Mesolithic of Western Europe is a technological phase that appears coincidently with the onset of the early Holocene. The mechanisms that triggered the development of the Mesolithic may relate to the climatic processes, which have led to the Holocene climatic optimum. Such environmental conditions would have influenced the subsistence strategies and impacted the functional solutions that were adopted by the last hunter-gatherers in Western Europe. However, today, such a hypothesis requires an improved study approach, firstly to assess a more high-resolution chronological archaeological variability and secondly to evaluate the role of local-to-regional early Holocene climatic fluctuations in Mesolithic occupations.
The Mesolithic of Western Europe is subdivided into two techno-complexes: the Sauveterrian (also known as “first Mesolithic”) and the Castelnovian (“second Mesolithic”) (Angelin, Perrin, & Nicod, 2018; Brisset et al., 2015; Ferrari, Laureti, & Jiménez, 2010; Franco, 2011; Marchand, 2014a; Perrin, Marchand, Allard, & Binder, 2010). The chronology of the Sauveterrian extends from the 11th- to the 8th-millennium cal. BP, while the chronology of the Castelnovian extends from the second part of the 9th- to the beginning of the 7th-millennium cal. BP. Current models support the scenario of a gradual development of the Sauveterrian technology from the local Palaeolithic substrates (e.g. Kozłowski, 2009; Mevel, Pion, Fornag, & E-Bontemps, 2014; Naudinot, Fagnart, Langlais, Mevel, & Valentin, 2019; Ricci, 2018; Soto, Domingo, García-Simónc, Aldayd, & Montes, 2020; Vadillo Conesa & Aura Tortosa, 2020; Valentin, 2008), with a succession to the Castelnovian that occurred prior around 8500 cal. BP. Regarding the Castelnovian, different hypotheses challenge its origin (e.g. Arzelier et al., 2022; Binder et al., 2022; Posth et al., 2023). The Sauveterrian and the Castelnovian are two different technological phases, which merge within a Mesolithic “box” that syncretizes a hyphen between the Palaeolithic and the Neolithic.
To understand the evolution of hunter-gatherers’ technologies from the late Pleistocene to the early Holocene, one main challenge is to track their archaeological variability and to provide an interpretation of the causes of it. A fair degree of techno-typological variability has already been described for the Sauveterrian (Chesnaux, 2014; Fontana & Guerreschi, 2009; Flor, Fontana, & Peresani, 2011; Valdeyron, 2008; Valdeyron, Bosc-Zanardo, & Briand, 2008; Wierer, 2008). Indeed, this variability concerns notably the nature and frequency of armatures, which consist of geometrics, triangles, and segments. Such evidence has led authors to mobilize various explanations, from site functions (e.g. Ricci, 2018; Visentin, Fontana, & Bertola, 2014) to regional variations (e.g. Rozoy, 1978; Valdeyron, 2008; Visentin, 2018) and diachronic evolution (e.g. Angelin et al., 2018; Broglio & Kozlowki, 1983; Guilbert, 2003).
Sauveterrian occupations are documented in a broad range of biomes throughout Southern–Western Europe. One territorial dynamic that singularizes the Mesolithic is the multiplication of sites within the alpine mountain range, documenting the conquest of new environments at the onset of milder Holocene climatic conditions (e.g. North-East Italy and Vercors, in French Alps). The mobility pattern of Sauveterrian groups would have favoured a “residential system,” in which human groups frequently moved into the same territory. In contrast with previous Palaeolithic times, petroarchaeological data have highlighted a preferential use of local raw materials during the Sauveterrian. This pattern supports the general hypothesis of a structural change in the settlement patterns of hunter-gatherer groups at the onset of the Holocene (Boschian, 2003; Grimaldi, 2006; Soto, Alday, Mangado, & Montes, 2016).
Recent studies have documented the existence of – at least – two distinct regional areas (e.g. Visentin, 2018) during the first Mesolithic in South-western Europe, both belonging to the Sauveterrian techno-complex: 1) the Sauveterrian from Eastern Provence, to a lesser extent from the whole south-east France, shares common techno-typological features with archaeological assemblages from Liguria and the northern part of the Tuscan-Emilian Apennines. This Liguro-Provençal Sauveterrian can be techno-typologically distinguished from the Sauveterrian west of the Rhône Valley by a lower presence of triangles, a higher miniaturization of the lithic blanks, and the absence of backed points with concave-base (Guilbert, 2003; Visentin, 2018). Such large-scale regionalization supports the existence of large territorial networks with local adaptations that may reflect regional environments and/or local cultural substrates.
Regarding the diachronic trends within the Sauveterrian, the rarity of long archaeological sequences represents a limitation. Amongst the few examples, we may mention the sites of Romagnano Loc III in the Adige Valley in North-East Italy (Broglio, 1980, 2016; Broglio & Kozlowki, 1983; Flor et al., 2011) and La Grande Rivoire, in the subalpine Vercors massif (Angelin et al., 2016, 2018). In those two sites, the Sauveterrian extends chronologically from 11500–10500 cal. BP to 9000–8500 cal. BP. The lithic assemblages document typo-technological changes, notably regarding the types and morphologies of armatures, which led the authors to subdivide the Sauveterrian techno-complex into three phases (early, middle, and upper Sauveterrian – ibidem).
In this study, we aimed to question the archaeological variability of the Liguro-provençal Sauveterrian and, for example, the recently excavated site of La Baume de Monthiver (Comps-sur-Artuby, France).
La Baume de Monthiver is located in the southern pre-Alps, at ca. 1,000 m above sea level and 50 km as the crow flies from the Mediterranean coast. In 2021, we published a study of the lithic assemblage from the phase M-B′ of la Baume de Monthiver (Ricci, Porraz, & Tomasso, 2021), dated between 9800 and 8000 cal. BP. The same year, we published the results of δ13C analysis on the anthracological remains from the same phase M-B′ (Audiard et al., 2021) and pointed out the record of a warmer period and/or dryer event that we interpreted as the 9300 Boreal climatic event.
In this study, we reinvestigated the archaeological assemblage from phase M-B′ and question if the climatic fluctuation of the 10th-/9th-millennium transition cal. BP impacted – or not – the organization of Mesolithic groups.
2 The Site of La Baume de Monthiver (Comps-sur-Artuby, France)
The site of La Baume de Monthiver (Figure 1) has been investigated in the framework of the “Préhistoire de la vallée du Jabron” project (dir. G. Porraz and L. Purdue). The goal of the project is focused on the documentation and the study of natural (Audiard et al., 2021; Costa, Davtian, Purdue, Tomasso, & Porraz, 2015; Purdue et al., 2021) and cultural (Porraz, Tomasso, & Purdue, 2014; Ricci et al., 2021; Tomasso et al., 2018) archives from the Jabron Valley and its close surroundings. The Jabron Valley is a small pre-Alpine catchment located in south-east France with sedimentary archives covering the last 50 millennia. The Baume de Monthiver is located on Monthiver Hill, right above the Upper Palaeolithic site of Les Prés de Laure (Porraz et al., 2014; Tomasso et al., 2018).
(a) Map of the main Mesolithic sites of the Liguro-Provençal arc with the location of “La Baume de Monthiver” (yellow point): (1) Baume de Monthiver, (2) Baume Rouyer, (3) Baume de Fontbrégoua, (4) Baume de Colle Rousse, (5) Figuier de la Cabre, (6) Grotte Lombard, (7) Pendimoun, (8) Punta della Mortola, (9) Pian del Rè, (10) Ortovero, (11) Arma di Nasino, (12) Arma dello Stefanin, (13) Arma di Veirana, (14) Caverna delle Arene Candide, (15) Colla di San Giacomo, and (b) geomorphological map of the middle Jabron Valley with locations of the main excavated sites.
The Baume de Monthiver is currently the only stratified Mesolithic site from the area, with an archaeological sequence extending from the end of the Tardiglacial to the Atlantic.
“La Baume de Monthiver” opens towards the east along the cliff on the Jurassic Monthiver massif, at an altitude of about 900 m. The shelter is a part of the Monthiver massif karstic system, composed of several small cavities exposed on the cliff. The Baume de Monthiver represents the wider karstic cavity, approximately 10 m wide and 5 m deep (Figure 2).
La Baume de Monthiver – Southern view of the Monthiver Hill and the shelter (©CNRS).
In 2017 and 2022, two excavations have been conducted under the supervision of G. Porraz and G. Ricci. During this time, the geometry of the excavation has been adapted to the presence of a clandestine trench located in the centre of the excavation area. Two different excavation sectors have thus been opened: the “sector G-F” and the “Test pit 12” (Figure 3a).
La Baume de Monthiver: (a) planimetry of the shelter and excavation areas; (b) stratigraphic section of the F12–E12 test-pit – sondage “12” (stratigraphic drawing by L. Purdue/C. Mologni, DAO C. Mologni, modified) with the different sedimentary phases and chronological attribution (dates cal. BP) of the three pulses (©CNRS).
A total of 23 stratigraphic units (SUs) were recognized during the 2017 excavation and lately grouped into 7 sedimentary phases, from phase M-F to phase M-A (Ricci et al., 2021). This sequence has been supplemented with new data obtained during the 2022 excavation; a complete summary is currently in preparation (Ricci et al.).
Geoarchaeological and micromorphological observations document site formation processes including large cryoclastic and anthropogenic inputs, together with secondary processes – such as the formation of carbonates – in relation to water percolation. The deposits of La Baume de Monthiver have been largely affected by runoff and erosional episodes, which seem to be in relation to the geometry of the bedrock that suggests a general slope towards the north-west.
The first excavation area consisted of a test pit in the squares F-E 12 (“sondage 12”). In that area, we exposed a 90 cm thick sedimentary sequence that we subdivided into three main depositional pulses. From base to top, we recorded:
a lower pulse (M-F and M-E) characterized by a red-brownish silty matrix with scattered lithic artefacts. Two 14C dates place the deposits within the Late Glacial interstadial (Table 1),
a clastic deposit (M-D) archaeologically sterile that we interpret as being reminiscent of the Younger Dryas period, and
an early Holocene deposit with several Mesolithic occupations lasting until ca. 8000 cal. BP (Figure 3b). This upper sedimentary pulse, which includes the phases M-C, M-B, and M-A, shows repetitive human occupations with abundant and diversified mineral and organic remains.
Radiocarbon dates from the phase M-B′ at La Baume de Monthiver
| Site | Layer | Code Lab. | Type | 14C Age | Calendar age | References | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| BP± | cal BP (2s) | |||||||
| Baume de Monthiver | M-B′3.1 | Poz-96290 | Faune sp. indet. | 7240 | 50 | 8174 | 7967 | Porraz et al., 2018 |
| Baume de Monthiver | M-B′3.1 | Poz-96291 | Faune sp. indet. | 7930 | 50 | 8985 | 8604 | Porraz et al., 2018 |
| Baume de Monthiver | M-B′3.2 | Lyon-18086 | Charbon (Pinus sp.) | 8100 | 40 | 9261 | 8786 | Ricci et al., 2021 |
| Baume de Monthiver | M-B′3.6 | Lyon-18087 | Charbon (Pinus sp.) | 8770 | 60 | 10120 | 9550 | Ricci et al., 2021 |
The second area of excavation focused on the upper depositional phase. It consisted of a more extensive excavation of the Mesolithic occupations (“sector G-F”) including the sedimentary phases M-C, M-B, and M-A. Note that phase M-B is subdivided into two sub-phases, namely M-B′ and M-B″ (Figure 4). This distinction is based on geoarchaeological observations: M-B′ extends into the most internal part of the shelter and is characterized by an increase of the silty component with several organic and mineral elements likely of anthropogenic origins. Phase M-A, putatively associated with the end of the Boreal period, has only been explored on a reduced surface and provided limited archaeological material.
La Baume de Monthiver – stratigraphic drawing of the south profile (F-G/11-12) and west profile (G-F-E/10-9) (stratigraphic drawing by L. Purdue/C. Mologni, DAO C. Mologni, modified) (©CNRS).
In this study, we focus on the archaeological material from the sedimentary phase M-B′ excavated in 2017 (Porraz et al., 2018). The chronological framework of the sedimentary phase M-B′ is based on four radiocarbon dates (Table 1) that place the Mesolithic occupations during the Boreal period. The M-B′ layers include five SUs (Figure 5) with a total of 438 plotted artefacts, including 408 lithic pieces, 17 bone remains, 3 perforated seashells, and a dozen iron oxides. Within the sedimentary phase M-B′, SU 3 is the most relevant and composes 62.7% of the plotted material. The radiocarbon ages from SU 3 follow a reliable chronological sequence (Ricci et al., 2021).
Charcoal taxonomic and isotopic data obtained on US M-B′ 3 of La Baume de Monthiver, with (i) décapage unit and chronology; (ii) isotopic results (red diamonds; mean δ13C values by dec are represented by the blue dots; raw analytical δ13C values are shown with the black lines), the limits of the calculated margin of error; and (iii) taxonomic identifications by the number of identified elements (total for the US M-B′ 3, dotted line for less than five identifications) (Audiard et al., 2021). Graphic representation of two phases (M-B′ upper and lower) based on the charcoal δ13C values.
During the excavation, all the artefacts larger than 2 cm have been spatially recorded with a total station method (Leica), with the exception being made for smaller artefacts with high archaeological value such as marine shells and small armatures. The excavation strictly followed soil characteristics, which have been at the base of the definition of the SU. Each SU was excavated by décapage. A décapage represents an archaeological surface defined by the base of at least three archaeological items. The thickness of a décapage may vary but never exceeds 20 mm. The numeration of a décapage is independent within each SU. For example, the SU 3, which has been excavated on a maximum thickness of 12 cm, has been subdivided into eight décapages (SU 3.1 to SU 3.8). Botanical and malacological remains have been collected following two different sampling methods: first consisted of the 2 mm dry sieving of the excavated soils (per sub-square and décapage), and the second consisted of the sampling of sedimentary columns that were sieved at 500 µm.
Regarding our understanding of phase M-B′, palaeoenvironmental analysis recently provided new information. Audiard et al. (2021) performed an isotopic study of the charcoal remains collected within the sedimentary column sampled in the square F10c of the SU 3. The results recognize a change in the δ13C signal (Figure 5), manifesting a climatic change that has been interpreted as the record of the 9300 dry event or warmer phase.
These data allow us to reconsider the palimpsest nature of the phase M-B′ and to recognize two sub-phases (Figure 5). The lower M-B′ phase, which precedes climatic oscillations at the end of the 10th millennium (the 9,300 event? – heat peak), groups together the SUs 5, 4 and 3.8 to 3.4; the upper M-B′ phase, which postdates this climatic variation, groups together the SUs 3.3 to 3.1, 2, and 13.
3 The M-B′ Phase at La Baume de Monthiver: Before and After the End of the 10th Millennium
The phase M-B′ groups together a total of 438 plotted artefacts (Table 2). The lower M-B′ phase consists of a total of 174 artefacts (39.7% of the M-B′ phase), namely 161 lithic elements, 6 fauna remains, 6 oxides, and 1 marine shell. The upper M-B′ phase consists of a total of 264 artefacts, namely 247 lithic elements, 11 fragments of fauna, 2 marine shells, and 4 oxides.
La Baume de Monthiver – phase M-B′. Count of the plotted artefacts of the upper and lower M-B′ phase
| Upper M-B′ sub-phase | Lower M-B′ sub-phase | Total | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Lithic | 247 | 161 | 408 |
| Fauna | 11 | 6 | 17 |
| Marine shells | 2 | 1 | 3 |
| Oxides | 4 | 6 | 10 |
| Total | 264 – 60.3% | 174 – 39.7% | 438 |
Important post-depositional alterations have affected the archaeological material, testifying of various mechanical and chemical processes. Osseous remains are extremely fragmentary with merely 12 fragments measuring more than 1 cm long on a total of ca. 600 pieces. Lithic artefacts show a high degree of alteration such as patina (29.4%), desilicification (13.2%), and thermal alterations (21.6%). More than 58% of the lithic material is fragmentary. In terms of post-depositional damages, no difference is observed between the lower and the upper M-B′ sub-phases.
3.1 What Kind of Changes in the Botanical Record?
Phase M-B′ was the subject of a taxonomic and isotopic study of the charcoal (Audiard et al., 2021). The anthracological study reveals a mostly forested environment with a cool to temperate climate dominated by Pinus sylvestris/nigra then Quercus sp.
The anthracological study also revealed a high concentration of charred hull of hazelnut. While the presence of Corylus is consistent with the anthracological assemblages for this period, the absence of hazelnut charcoal suggests the transport or collection of hazelnuts on the site area (unused wood) for consumption. Such hypotheses have been largely documented over Mesolithic sites attesting to the important place of hazelnuts in the Mesolithic human diet (Henry & Boboeuf, 2016; Roda Gilaberta, Martinez-Morenoa, & Mora Torcal, 2013; Ruiz-Alonso & Zapata, 2015; Valdeyron, 2013; Verjux, 2017).
The δ13C study of Pinus charcoal reveals two isotopic phases with higher values for décapages 2 and 3 than for décapages 4, 5, and 6 (Audiard et al., 2021). This difference is interpreted as:
a rather humid and/or colder period, suitable for pine growth,
followed by a change towards a warmer and/or drier climate, weakening the pine formations.
Such results are in accord with the climate warming period that occurred over the Boreal and early Atlantic periods (Jalali, Sicre, Bassetti, & Kallel, 2016, Rasmussen et al., 2014). Moreover, this period is also contemporaneous with the “9300” event analogous (with a lower magnitude) to the “8200” event, better known in the region (Fleitmann et al., 2008; Rasmussen et al., 2014). The latter is characterized on the Mediterranean rim by an increase in aridity and in south-east France by a strong seasonal contrast associated with major erosional processes (Berger & Guilaine, 2009). The isotopic record thus reveals a combination of climatic phenomena (warming, dry events, with high seasonal contrast) that are harmful to pine growth (Audiard et al., 2021). Finally, the presence of several radiocarbon ages on the top of US M-B'3 (between 9300 and 7900 cal. BP) could be explained by successive erosional phases as well as a lower rate of sedimentation in relation to the “9300” and “8200” ky climatic events (Berger & Guilaine, 2009; Frigola et al., 2007).
3.2 What Kind of Changes in Subsistence Practices?
The faunal assemblage of the M-B′ phase is composed of more than 600 remains, almost exclusively collected by sieving. The collection is highly fragmentary, which limited anatomical and species identification. Only a few bones and teeth fragments were identified: wild boar (Sus scrofa), fox (Vulpes sp.), and mid- to large-sized ungulates are present in the M-B′ phase at the Baume de Monthiver. In the latter category, the distinction between cervids, suids, or other kinds of large herbivores was not possible.
A large proportion of bones are burned (from ca. 50% to ca. 90%), and burning seems to be the main agent of bone modification.
Wild boar and red foxes are known to appear in the faunal assemblages of this geographical area by 12000 BP, marking the disappearance of the open cold prairies characteristic of the Tardiglacial landscape and the settling of forested ecosystems (Bridault & Fontana, 2003). This faunal assemblage is well known in the early Holocene and with a “taphonomical signature” typical of Mesolithic and Sauveterrian sites (e.g. Bridault & Fontana, 2003; Crégut-Bonnoure, 1995; Monchot, 2008 and references therein).
Taxonomically and ecologically, the identified species are very ubiquitous and widely representative of the early Holocene assemblages (sensu lato). At this stage, the limited faunal record does not allow recognizing the transition of the warm-to-dry climatic fluctuation highlighted by the charcoal isotopic record. Similarly, in terms of human behaviour, no noticeable differences have been recorded between the lower and the upper M-B′ sub-phases.
3.3 What Kind of Changes Do We Observe in Terms of Raw Material Provisioning Strategies and Lithic Production?
A detailed study on the technical systems of the phase M-B′ of La Baume de Monthiver was recently published (Ricci et al., 2021). The lithic assemblage is composed of 4,078 elements, out of which 408 elements were identified during the excavation (Table 2). The morphometric patterns, with a wide representation of the fine fraction, suggest the absence of pre- or post-depositional dimensional selection. All pieces, except débris, were observed with a stereomicroscope for petrographic analysis (see the method and reference collection in Tomasso, Binder, Martino, Porraz, & Simon, 2016). A large proportion was indeterminable, including several burnt pieces. All determinable pieces reveal strictly local provisioning of raw materials (Table 3). Raw materials include four different facies of cenozoic cherts. These last originate from various lacustrine and continental formations dating from the Oligocene to the Miocene. Due to their great variability and several remobilizations of these cherts in different secondary deposits (conglomerates), the exact relationship between facies and original formation is not always possible. However, we have defined four different facies from the raw material of Monthiver, which can be correlated with the chert contents in the Jabron River alluvial deposits (MPALP 304, 306, and 308). Three other raw materials can be identified into the assemblage: Turonian chert (MPALP-210) available in the Jabron alluvial deposits, orthoquartzite from the Brenon sandstones (MPALP-402), and Valanginian chert (MPALP-208) accessible in the neighbouring limestones.
Technological classification according to lithotypes of the lithic assemblage from the M-B′ phase of La Baume de Monthiver
| Indeterminable | Tertiary formation | Cretaceous formation | Total | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| thermally altered | Faciès T1 | Faciès T2 | Faciès T3 | Faciès T4 | Turonian | Valanginian | Orthoquartzite | (N) | ||
| Débris divers | 3,733 | 44 | 6 | 1 | 3 | 10 | 2 | 4 | — | 3,759 |
| Flakes | 82 | 33 | 7 | 4 | 15 | 23 | 8 | 3 | — | 142 |
| Elongated flakes | 22 | 8 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 9 | — | 3 | 1 | 40 |
| Blades | 34 | 20 | 4 | 1 | 5 | 8 | 4 | 4 | 1 | 61 |
| Bladelets | 28 | 8 | 4 | — | 8 | 10 | 5 | 6 | — | 61 |
| Backed pieces | 3 | — | — | — | 1 | 1 | 2 | — | — | 7 |
| Cores | 3 | 1 | — | — | 1 | 1 | 3 | — | — | 8 |
| Total | 3,905 | 114 | 24 | 7 | 34 | 62 | 24 | 20 | 2 | 4,078 |
| Upper M-B′ sub-phase | N/A | N/A | 17 | 2 | 13 | 38 | 9 | 13 | — | (92) |
| Lower M-B′ sub-phase | N/A | N/A | 7 | 5 | 21 | 24 | 15 | 7 | 2 | (81) |
| Hors débris | 172 | 70 | 18 | 6 | 31 | 52 | 22 | 16 | 1 | 318 |
| Fréquence hors débris | 54.10% | 22.00% | 5.70% | 1.90% | 9.70% | 16.40% | 6.90% | 5.00% | 0.30% | 100% |
Respective frequencies demonstrate no difference in raw materials in terms of provisioning management (Table 3).
The lithic assemblage is characterized by the production of elongated blanks, variable in size and morphology. Based on morphotechnical characteristics, three main categories of lamino-lamellar products can be identified:
A: elongated microlithic bladelets and elongated flakes with converging edges and curved, sometimes twisted, profiles;
B: laminar blanks, blades, and bladelets from medium to large size, with rectangular morphology, with parallel and straight profiles;
C: micro- and hyper-microlithic bladelets or laminar flakes with rectangular morphology, with parallel edges and straight profiles.
The initial volumes, of small and medium size (usually less than 10 cm), are selected in the shape of pebbles or prismatic blocks. A very low technical investment is made in the initial phases of the volume preparation (Ricci et al., 2021).
A diacritical reading of the whole industry allows us to propose the hypothesis of unidirectional short series on independently exploited surfaces. However, two cores are distinguished by their pyramidal morphology and semi-tournant management.
These two chaînes opératoires refer to two opposing volume management systems: 1) an integrated structure (type E2 – pyramid method) and 2) an additional structure (type D2 – additional method). These chaînes opératoires bring different skills and show different production intentions. The blanks associated with each type of the chaînes opératoires are more or less equivalent in number, and there is no specialization linked to the raw material. The observation of the butts and the stigmata of knapping suggests the use of a mineral hammer for a free-hand internal or marginal percussion.
The retouched tools are composed only of unidirectional bladelets. These blanks were selected to produce microlithic backed tools (Figure 6, no. 11–13, 24–26). The retouched bladelets belong to the narrowest dimensional classes, underlining the importance of this metric criterion in the functional system. The retouched tools are exclusively backed elements and are all fragmentary. No geometrical armatures have been found.
La Baume de Monthiver – lithic industry of M-B′ divided into the two phases, namely upper and lower. no. 1–3, 7, 14–16, 20–23: bladelet type A; no. 5–6, 8–10, 17–19: blades and bladelet type B; no. 4: bladelet type C. no. 11–13, 24–26: backed pieces. Cores – no. BMV17-054: facial core – additional method; BMV17-378 and BMV17-787: semi-tournant unidirectional core.
No differences have been recorded between the lower and the upper M-B′ sub-phases. Both sub-phases present an exclusive use of local raw materials, with more or less the same distribution of lithological facies (Table 4). From a technological point of view, the same objectives and productional systems have been recognized (Table 3 and Figure 6). In the same way, no difference has been noted within the formal tool category: the backed pieces are the same from a typological, typometric, and stylistic point of view (Figure 6, no. 11–13, 24–26).
La Baume de Monthiver, phase M-B′: classification of the lithic industry in the two M-B′ phases – upper and lower
| Upper sub-phase (US M-B'13, 2, 3.1-3) | Lower sub-phase (US M-B′ 3.4-8, 4, 5) | Total | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Débris divers | 1,339 | 2,420 | 3,759 |
| Flakes | 54 | 88 | 142 |
| Elongated flakes | 14 | 26 | 40 |
| Blades | 37 | 24 | 61 |
| Bladelets | 29 | 32 | 61 |
| Backed pieces | 4 | 3 | 7 |
| Cores | 6 | 2 | 8 |
| Total | 1,483 | 2,595 | 4,078 |
| Hors débris | 144 | 175 | 319 |
3.4 What Kind of Changes Do We Observe in the Symbolic Sphere?
Eight marine shell remains, all attributed to the species Columbella rustica, were found within the phase M-B′ at the Baume de Monthiver (excavations 2017 – Figure 7 and Table 5). The number of remains (NR) and the minimum number of individuals (MNI) are both equal to 8. The corpus of ornaments is thus entirely composed of C. rustica shells. This species is almost absent from the ornaments of the Liguro-Provençal groups at the end of the Pleistocene (Riparo Mochi – Stiner, 1999; Arene Candide – Alhaique & Molari, 2006; Grotte des Enfants – Vanhaeren, 2010; abri Martin – Hoareau, Binder, & Beyries, 2020), but becomes dominant from the Holocene onwards (Arma dello Stefanin – Leale Anfossi & Palma di Cesnola, 1972; Châteauneuf-les-Martigues and Arma di Nasino – Taborin, 1974; Arma Veirana – Gravel-Miguel et al., 2022). It frequently represents more than 80% of Mesolithic assemblages.
Set of C. rustica from La Baume de Monthiver, excavation 2017.
Provenance of the marine shells (C. rustica) at La Baume de Monthiver, phase M-B′ (excavation 2017)
| N. Ref. | Phase | US | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Upper M-B′ sub-phase | 314 | M-B' | M-B′ 13 | 2 |
| 383 | M-B' | M-B′ 13 | 5 | |
| 400 | M-B' | M-B′ 13 | 5 | |
| 553 | M-B' | M-B′ 3 | 1 | |
| 720 | M-B' | M-B′ 3 | 1 | |
| 518 | M-B' | M-B′ 3 | 3 | |
| Lower M-B′ sub-phase | 821 | M-B' | M-B′ 3 | 4 |
| 828 | M-B' | M-B′ 3 | 5 |
Two shells are complete or missing only part of the spiral whorls (n = 3). Two shells have lost part of the spiral whorls and the body whorl, and only one shell is strongly fragmented as only part of the columella remains. All shells that have their whole body whorl have a perforation on the dorsal side, facing the natural opening. The surface of the shells is in a good state of conservation in that the periostracum is fully preserved on all elements and traces of natural patterns are preserved on two shells. Some stigmata related to natural coastal degradation after the death of the animal are observed on four shells, in the form of microperforations of lithophagous organisms (n = 2), fine pitting related to progressive dissolution (n = 1), and encrustation of serpulids on the shell (n = 1). Red residues were observed on the surface, the columella, the walls of the perforation, and embedded in the irregularities of six shells (cracks, sutures of the spiral whorls, microperforations, etc.). Traceological analysis is ongoing to determine the modes of perforation and use of these shells.
The marine shells mostly concentrate on the upper sub-phase of M-B′, with six specimens (on a total of eight) that postdate one of the climate fluctuations at the end of the 10th millennium.
4 Closing Discussion
The site of La Baume de Monthiver, excavated in 2017 and 2022, has revealed an archaeological sequence with multiple occupations from the first Mesolithic. The 23 SUs recognized during excavations were grouped together into seven sedimentary phases that conform to the major depositional events recorded at the site. Within this study, we focused on the sedimentary phase M-B′ dated from 9800 to 8000 cal. BP. Phase M-B′ records various mineral and organic remains.
In a first study (Ricci et al., 2021), we described the main characteristics of the lithic assemblage of phase M-B′. The raw material procurement is based on local raw materials; the reduction sequences favour sequential and unidirectional removals to produce small flakes and irregular blades and bladelets. One of the original aspects of phase M-B′ concerns the retouched tools, which compose only 2.4% of the full lithic assemblage. The corpus of formal tools includes a few backed tools, but no geometric elements were found. Geometrics are usually found during the first Mesolithic and are often considered characteristic of the Sauveterrian technological tradition. Despite their absence at La Baume de Monthiver, we securely assigned the M-B′ phase to the Sauveterrian based on the radiochronologic frame and the technological similarities with other sites. We also emphasized the existence of an important techno-typological variability during the Sauveterrian and developed a discussion on the reasons behind the observed variability (Ricci et al., 2021).
A second study (Audiard et al., 2021) allowed us to subdivide the phase M-B′ into two sub-phases. This subdivision between a lower and an upper M-B′ sub-phase was based on an isotopic study of the anthracological remains that allowed identifying a warmer/dryer phase that we recognized as the peak of the Boreal warming and/or 9300 event.
In this study, we have investigated the diachronic changes and/or stability of the technological patterns of the M-B′ Mesolithic occupation at La Baume de Monthiver in light of the climatic fluctuations that occurred during the early Holocene.
A consensus associates the Mesolithic traditions with the early Holocene warming conditions. Yet, the Holocene is not a stable climatic phase and did not equally impact local environments from Western Europe. Three major cooling events shall be considered with more attention when discussing the variability of the first Mesolithic. The study of continental and oceanic climatic archives allows us to define three major climatic events that have been individualized as the 11400, 9300, and 8200 events (Berger & Guilaine, 2009; Bond et al., 1997; Rasmussen, Vinther, Clausen, & Andersen, 2007). These three events, which have been usually associated with peaks of aridity, may have influenced Mesolithic techno-cultural adaptations. From this point of view, the improvement of multidisciplinary approaches combining techno-cultural and local environmental reconstructions from the site sequences represents a powerful tool throughout the investigation of human–climate interactions.
The Baume de Monthiver is located in a mountainous environment of the Mediterranean pre-Alps, at ca. 900 m above sea level. The studied area benefits of a good control of the palaeoclimatic and palaeoenvironmental records, particularly for the Alpine and pre-Alpine contexts (e.g. Court-Picon, 2003; Finsinger, Tinner, Van der Knaap, & Ammann, 2006; Mocci et al., 2008, 2009; Purdue et al., 2021; Tzortzis et al., 2008; Walsh, Mocci, & Palet-Martinez; 2007). Following the Younger Dryas cold period (12.9–11.7 ka cal. BP), the progressive early Holocene warming is marked by the rapid spread of the Pinus sylvestris towards the middle and high mountain areas. In this continuity, a successive development of more mesophilic vegetation was set up, according to a forest altitudinal gradient (e.g. Beaudouin, Jouet, Suc, Berne, & Escarguel, 2007; Delhon & Thiébault, 2009; Delhon, Thiébault, Brochier, & Berger, 2010; Heinz, 1990; Heinz & Thiébault, 1998; Nicol-Pichard & Dubard, 1998). This period is also marked by a strong increase in hazel trees, up to high altitudes in the region (ibid.). On a larger scale, this change is accompanied by the recurrent evidence of management and consumption of hazelnuts in the early Mesolithic settlements, in east and south-east France (Angelin et al., 2016; de Beaulieu & Jorda, 1977; Finsinger & Tinner, 2007; Mocci et al., 2008; Valdeyron, 2013) and in the Atlantic region (e.g. Marchand, 2014b; Valdeyron, 2013). The period is also characterized by the settling of “forested” mammalian species in the area, such as wild boar, roe deer, or red foxes, with an anthropogenic consumption oriented preferentially towards mid-sized herbivores (Bridault & Fontana, 2003; Monchot, 2008 and references therein). Similar subsistence practices have been observed at La Baume de Monthiver.
Techno-cultural and palaeoenvironmental studies from La Baume de Monthiver site do not highlight relevant human behavioural changes before and after climatic changes at the end of the 10th millennium. Indeed, our results have documented stable technological, symbolic, and subsistence practices, supporting the hypothesis of Mesolithic societies well adapted to the climatic instability of the early Holocene. As a conclusion, we reject the hypothesis we formulated, which postulated that the variability of the first Mesolithic would reflect short-term adaptability to climatic instability. Alternative hypothesis should be considered, such as site’s functions and socio-economic organizations. The variability of the Sauveterrian and its internal seriation find explanations that go beyond environmental determinism.
Our study points out the necessity to improve the field research on archaeological assemblages with a high-resolution scale in order to clarify the mechanisms behind the archaeological variability of the first Mesolithic. Our results from la Baume de Monthiver demonstrate the potential of δ13C studies not only to reconstruct palaeoenvironments but also to track climatic changes that are not recorded within the sedimentary archives. Finally, we would highlight the need to improve the resolution of the radiocarbon chronological framework of Mesolithic archaeological contexts as a pivotal tool to better understand the adaptation of the last hunter-gatherers of Europe facing new environmental conditions that characterize the early Holocene period.
Acknowledgements
This study is part of the research project on the Prehistory of the Jabron Valley (coordination G. Porraz and L. Purdue). It benefits from close collaboration with the Parc Naturel Régional du Verdon, the Musée départemental de Préhistoire des Gorges du Verdon (Quinson), and the municipalities of Comps-sur-Artuby and Trigance. We sincerely thank Mr Robert, the owner of the site, as well as the Service Régional de l’Archéologie PACA and the Ministère de la Culture for the support given to this project.
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Funding information: The authors state no funding involved.
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Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.
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Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.
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Data availability statement: All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article.
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