Abstract
School learning environments play important roles in students’ lives. But when do these relationships form? Previous research on middle school students has identified a strong association between student socio-demographics, school characteristics, and achievement. Yet, few studies have investigated the origins of these associations. This study investigated whether associations exist in a large sample of much younger 4th and 5th grade students, typically ages 9 through 11, from a Midwest urban school district. Results show socio-demographic differences in perception, in particular race, sex, and economic status, are less pronounced at earlier ages; indicating socio-demographic associations tend to emerge in middle and high school. Special education is a notable exception. Younger students’ perceptions of the learning environment are associated with achievement at this age shedding light on the origin of the links between socio-demographics and perceptions of learning environments.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
Our introduction primarily focuses on previous studies that have examined perceptions of the learning environment by race, gender, and socioeconomic status. Hunt et al., 2023 for a systematic review of students with disabilities and their perception of the learning environment. Please also see Rodriguez et al., 2009 and Yough et al., 2023 for studies on students learning English as a second language and their perception of the learning environment.
References
Benbenishty, R., Astor, R. A., Roziner, I., & Wrabel, S. L. (2016). Testing the causal links between school climate, school Violence, and school academic performance: A cross-lagged panel autoregressive model. Educational Researcher, 45(3), 197–206. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X16644603.
Berg, J. K., & Aber, J. L. (2015). A multilevel view of predictors of children’s perceptions of school interpersonal climate. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(4), 1150. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000027.
Berkowitz, R., Moore, H., Astor, R. A., & Benbenishty, R. (2017). A research synthesis of the associations between socioeconomic background, inequality, school climate, and academic achievement. Review of Educational Research, 87(2), 425–469. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654316669821.
Brookover, W. B., Schweitzer, J. H., Schneider, J. M., Beady, C. H., Flood, P. K., & Wisenbaker, J. M. (1978). Elementary school social climate and school achievement. American Educational Research Journal, 15(2), 301–318. https://doi.org/10.2307/1162468.
Bryk, A. S., Sebring, P. B., Allensworth, E., Easton, J. Q., & Luppescu, S. (2010). Organizing schools for improvement: Lessons from Chicago. University of Chicago Press.
Clayton, J. K. (2011). Changing diversity in US schools: The impact on elementary student performance and achievement. Education and Urban Society, 43(6), 671–695. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013124510380909.
Cornell, D., Shukla, K., & Konold, T. (2015). Peer victimization and authoritative school climate: A multilevel approach. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(4), 1186–1201. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000038.
Davis, J. R., & Warner, N. (2018). Schools matter: The positive relationship between New York City high schools’ student academic progress and school climate. Urban Education, 53(8), 959–980. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042085915613544.
De Pedro, K. T., Gilreath, T., & Berkowitz, R. (2016). A latent class analysis of school climate among middle and high school students in California public schools. Children and Youth Services Review, 63, 10–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2016.01.023.
Eugene, D. R. (2020). A multilevel model for examining perceptions of school climate, socioeconomic status, and academic achievement for secondary school students. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk (JESPAR), 25(1), 79–99. https://doi.org/10.1080/10824669.2019.1670067.
Fan, W., Williams, C. M., & Corkin, D. M. (2011). A multilevel analysis of student perceptions of school climate: The effect of social and academic risk factors. Psychology in the Schools, 48(6), 632–647. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20579.
Garner, M. L., & Poteat, M. (2005). [Test review of STAR Math version 2.0]. In R. A. Spies, & B. S. Plake (Eds.), The sixteenth mental measurements yearbook. Buros Institute of Mental Measurements.
Gest, S. D., Welsh, J. A., & Domitrovich, C. E. (2005). Behavioral predictors of changes in social relatedness and liking school in elementary school. Journal of School Psychology, 43(4), 281–301. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2005.06.002.
Gilman, L. J., Zhang, B., & Jones, C. J. (2020). Measuring the perceptions of school learning environments for younger learners. Learning Environments Research, 24(2), 169–181. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10984-020-09333-y.
Hoy, W. K., & Miskel, C. G. (2013). Educational Administration: Theory, Research, and practice (9th ed.). McGraw-Hill.
Hunt, S. M., Radliff, K. R., Acton, C., Bible, A., & Joseph, L. M. (2023). Students with disabilities’ perceptions of school climate: A systematic review. School Psychology International. https://doi.org/10.1177/01430343231194732.
Jones, T. M., Fleming, C., Research, & Team, E. (2021). A multilevel model of the association between school climate and racial differences in academic outcomes. Psychology in the Schools, 58(5), 893–912. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22477.
Klugman, J., Gordon, M. F., Sebring, P. B., & Sporte, S. E. (2015). A First Look at the 5Essentials in Illinois Schools. Research Report. University of Chicago Consortium on Chicago School Research.
Koenig, M. A., & Harris, P. L. (2005a). Preschoolers mistrust ignorant and inaccurate speakers. Child Development, 76(6), 1261–1277. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00849.x.
Koenig, M. A., & Harris, P. L. (2005b). The role of social cognition in early trust. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9(10), 457–459. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2005.08.006.
Koth, C. W., Bradshaw, C. P., & Leaf, P. J. (2008). A multilevel study of predictors of student perceptions of school climate: The effect of classroom-level factors. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100(1), 96–104. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.100.1.96.
Lee, V. E., & Smith, J. B. (1999). Social support and achievement for young adolescents in Chicago: The role of school academic press. American Educational Research Journal, 36(4), 907–945. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312036004907.
Lizardo, O. (2016). Improving cultural analysis: Considering personal culture in its declarative and nondeclarative modes. American Sociological Review, 82(1), 88–115. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122416675175.
Mitchell, M. M., Bradshaw, C. P., & Leaf, P. J. (2010). Student and teacher perceptions of school climate: A multilevel exploration of patterns of discrepancy. Journal of School Health, 80(6), 271–279. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1746-1561.2010.00501.
Nebelsick-Gullett, L. (2003). [Test review of STAR Reading version 2.2]. In B. Plake, J. C. Impara, & A. Spies (Eds.), The fifteenth mental measurements yearbook. Buros Institute of Mental Measurements.
Niehaus, K., Rudasill, K. M., & Rakes, C. R. (2012). A longitudinal study of school connectedness and academic outcomes across sixth grade. Journal of School Psychology, 50(4), 443–460. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2012.03.002.
Rodriguez, D., Ringler, M., O’Neal, D., & Bunn, K. (2009). English language learners’ perceptions of school environment. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 23(4), 513–526. https://doi.org/10.1080/02568540909594678.
Sanders, S. M., Durbin, J. M., Anderson, B. G., Fogarty, L. M., Giraldo-Garcia, R. J., & Voight, A. (2018). Does a rising school climate lift all boats? Differential associations of perceived climate and achievement for students with disabilities and limited English proficiency. School Psychology International, 39(6), 646–662. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034318810319.
Tan, X., & Michel, R. (2011). Why do standardized testing programs report scaled scores. ETS R & D Connections, 16, 1–6.
Thapa, A., Cohen, J., Guffey, S., & Higgins-D’Alessandro, A. (2013). A review of school climate research. Review of Educational Research, 83(3), 357–385. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654313483907.
Voight, A., Hanson, T., O’Malley, M., & Adekanye, L. (2015). The racial school climate gap: Within-school disparities in students’ experiences of safety, support, and connectedness. American Journal of Community Psychology, 56(3), 252–267. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-015-9751-x.
Wang, M. T., & Degol, J. L. (2016). School climate: A review of the construct, measurement, and impact on student outcomes. Educational Psychology Review, 28(2), 315–352. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-015-9319-1.
Wang, W., Vaillancourt, T., Brittain, H. L., McDougall, P., Krygsman, A., Smith, D., Cunningham, C. E., Haltigan, J. D., & Hymel, S. (2014). School climate, peer victimization, and academic achievement: Results from a multi-informant study. School Psychology Quarterly, 29(3), 360. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000084.
White, G. W., Stepney, C. T., Hatchimonji, D. R., Moceri, D. C., Linsky, A. V., Reyes-Portillo, J. A., & Elias, M. J. (2016). The increasing impact of socioeconomics and race on standardized academic test scores across elementary, middle, and high school. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 86(1), 10–23. https://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000122.
Yough, M., Slaten, C. D., Sankofa, N., Li, J., & Anderman, E. M. (2023). English language learner perceptions of school climate and teacher–student relationships: Role of acculturation and implications for achievement. Learning Environments Research. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10984-023-09469-7.
Ziv, M., & Frye, D. (2004). Children’s understanding of teaching: The role of knowledge and belief. Cognitive Development, 19(4), 457–477. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogdev.2004.09.002.
Ziv, M., Solomon, A., & Frye, D. (2008). Young children’s recognition of the intentionality of teaching. Child Development, 79(5), 1237–1256. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01186.x.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors do not have a relationship that may be perceived as a potential conflict of interest about the manuscript being considered for publication. We have no financial or non-financial interests directly or indirectly related to the work submitted for publication.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Gilman, L.J., Zhang, B. & Lynch, J.L. Exploring the relationship between learning environments and academic achievement among young students. Soc Psychol Educ (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-023-09879-8
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-023-09879-8