The origins of physics words

The aim of this paper is to provide a complete account of the origins of physics terms for the benefit of those who plan to develop a physics vocabulary in languages that currently do not have one, especially minority or indigenous languages (henceforth MILs). A recent study [1] identified the core lexicon of introductory mechanics for secondary and university algebra-based courses, and drew examples from the physics vocabulary used in several MILs. It also explored two mechanisms for creating physics terms, which we call loanwords and adapted words respectively. The first are words that sound phonetically plausible in the MIL, and echo the word in a dominant language [2], usually, but not always English. The second uses the roots of the accepted physics word and replaces them with native words or roots. There is a third alternative, new words, which consists of coining words that have no reference to the existing ones. Let me give a hypothetical example. Suppose Spanish lacked a word for 'entropy.' The natural loanword would be 'entropía,' which sounds a lot like the existing physics word, but is not explicitly descriptive. A second approach is to go to the roots of the word (Greek in this case), coined in the 1860s by Clausius, and which literally mean 'transformation content,' or more loosely 'turning toward'. 'Contenido de transformación' sounds awkward, but it is at least conceptually more meaningful to a native Spanish speaker than the first alternative. Finally, a contemporary physicist may dig a bit deeper and propose 'multiplicidad modificada,' to reflect that entropy can be calculated as the logarithm of the multiplicity of microscopic states, or 'cercanía al equilibrio,' as in a closed system the entropy increases as it approaches equilibrium.

The point of this paper is not to advocate for, or against any of these strategies, but to help any potential lexicon developers understand the origin of currently used words and inform them about their content. While the first approach offers the straightest path to the standard, international physics vocabulary, the second and third can may make the students more comfortable and confident about what the word means, encourage discussions in their native language, and can allow for an easy transition to standard vocabulary with proper bilingual instruction.

There is an additional, more subtle benefit to the work presented here: not all words were coined by isolated scientists, as happened in the example above; some emerged from complicated interactions between everyday and scientific language, such as 'amount,' evoking a heap (mountain) of things, or 'turbulence,' which, as you will see later, is reminiscent of the complicated, unpredictable motions of a mob of people. An occasional word origin anecdote could go a long way in helping students connect their ordinary life with that of the classroom or lab and thus making physics more 'human.'

This paper traces the origins of the core algebra-based physics vocabulary (in English) for the areas covered in most introductory physics courses: mechanics, electricity and magnetism, and optics. A study of 80 000 words in the English language [3] shows that the origin of words in common spoken English breaks down as follows: about 28% each from French and Latin, 25% Germanic languages, 5% Greek, and the remainder from other origins. An unrelated study [4] states that about 60% of English words can ultimately be traced back to Greek or Latin, but this number goes up to 90% for science and technology vocabulary. Our work confirms that this predominance of a Greek and Latin influence is indeed the case in physics.

The results presented in this paper come from extensive searches of an etymology web page [5]. We proceed directly to the results, presented as follows.

In section 2 we provide an extensive list of the Greek and Latin roots from which most elementary physics words can be constructed. Out of the over 6000 roots used in science [6, 7] just over 260 make up the physics list. This section also includes a list of words with other origins (notably earlier versions of English), and a few useful suffixes. Words come from reference [1] for mechanics, and [8–10] for electricity, magnetism and optics. In section 3 we show multiple meanings of a list of words that have been identified as causing confusion in introductory physics students [11, 12], with at least one meaning related to physics and one other not. Section 4 presents a brief discussion and conclusion. Appendix provides a reverse directory of root usage, showing the origin of the words in reference [1] plus a selection of words in electricity, magnetism, and optics, adding up to over 400 keywords.

2.1. Greek and Latin roots to English (with examples)

2.2. Words of proto-germanic or old English origin

2.3. Words with other origins

2.4. Origins and use of common suffixes

These words were identified in references [11, 12] as causing confusion among physics students. While words were pre-selected by the paper authors, the diagnosis was made by interviewing actual students. An asterisk (*) precedes the physics-related meaning(s), which in most cases can also be extracted from the word root lists.

Acceleration: when something happens or moves more quickly (the acceleration of climate change). *The time change of rate of velocity (the acceleration on Earth's surface due to gravity).

Angle: a way to approach a goal (that angle is not working). A point of view for observing (a videocam angle). *The span between to lines that cross (the ramp made a 30-degree angle with the horizontal).

Cycle: the time between two events that happen frequently (an economic cycle). A sequence of events that often returns to the initial point (he completed his cycle at the company). *One full to-and-fro event of a periodic phenomenon (a pendulum clock undergoes one cycle per second).

Convention: a group of people who meet for a common objective (a salesman convention). Something that is done out of custom (it was a family convention to greet the elders first). A set of rules to allow interactions between governments (a regional trade convention). *An agreement to do something in a given way (for the cross product we use the right-hand convention).

Density: the number of entities per unit area (the tree density of the forest). *The value of a quantity normalized per unit mass or volume (the density of water is about 800 times greater than that of air).

Deviation: a moving away from a belief or doctrine (deviation from standard liberalism). *In a probability distribution, the average spread with respect to a reference point (the standard deviation of the experiment was suspiciously small).

Direction: an ultimate goal (the company lost its sense of direction). The instruction or supervision of someone (he acted under the direction of his boss). *The relative spatial orientation between two points (the both came from the same direction).

Distribution: the action of distributing (distribution of a fortune). * Frequency distribution: the quantitative description of variations in a population or sample (a distribution of measurements).

Energy: liveliness (a story told with energy). The ability to do something (energy to perform). *A physical quantity acquired through work or heat transfer (the potential energy of the spring increased as we stretched it).

Error: something that does not result in the expected outcome (an estimation error). The result of a mistake (transcription error). *The difference between a correct value and one that is measured or otherwise obtained (our experiment yielded a 5 percent error).

Fluid: something that can change, adapt or flow with ease (the situation was fluid). *A substance that flows or takes the shape of its container (water under everyday conditions is a fluid).

Force: something that is applied to something else (the force of the hurricane). Something that generates change (force of nature). *That which causes an acceleration or shape change in a physical body (springs exert an elastic force).

Frequency: quality of something happening often (frequency of colds in winter). *Number of cycles or oscillations per unit time of a periodic process (humans can detect sounds in a given frequency range).

Friction: the interaction between parties that disagree (friction between liberals and conservatives). *The force that resists the motion of one past another when their surfaces touch in parallel (friction slowed down the sliding crate).

Function: one or more actions within a system (the function of this valve is to prevent overflows). A professional appointment or capacity (he cannot perform the functions of his job). *The description of how a variable depends on another variable (the flow in the pipe is a function of pressure difference).

Gas: to talk too much or to brag (his claims were pure gas). *A fluid that has minimal cohesion forces (the air in this room is a gas).

Gravity: high level of consequence of an action (there was much gravity to his accusation). *The force of attraction between bodies due to their mass (weight is a consequence of the force of gravity).

Heat: high degree of emotion and concentration in an action or situation (he overreacted in the heat of the moment). *Energy that is passed between two objects at different temperatures (heat flowed from the hot coffee to the ice cube).

Impulse: the beginning of an action with no apparent previous thought or motivation (he got an impulse to leave the room immediately). *The accumulated effect of a force over time that leads to a momentum change (the tennis player applied impulse to the ball).

Intermittent: something that comes and goes with the seasons (intermittent flowering). *Something that comes and goes, possibly irregularly (intermittent rain is common here).

Kinetic : energetic, active (the ballet performance was kinetic). *Having to do with the motion of objects, especially their energy (the kinetic energy of the pushed object increased).

Mass : a group of many people (a mass of movie-goers). A large amount or quantity (masses of air). *A measure of the quantity of material (the tumor had a significant mass).

Massive: very significant (a massive heart attack). Very large (a massive loss of income). *Having a large amount of mass (a massive star).

Momentum: The outcome of multiple similar positive events (after winning 10 games, the team had a lot of momentum). *The mass times the velocity of an object (even a bullet can have a lot of momentum).

Motion: the quality of something being in action or effect (unexpected events were set in motion). *The changing of place of an object, usually without a visible agent (the motion of the projectile was predictable with equations).

Normal: within an expectable range or pattern (normal weather). *Perpendicular to a plane (an object resting on a surface usually experiences a normal force).

Observation: act of being observed (under observation). Obedience of a law or norm (observation of the holiday). *Notice or recording of an event, possibly with instruments (physics has been built on the accumulation of observations).

Parameter : an ingredient (sadness as a parameter of depression). A constraint (travel within certain parameters). *Physical variables that define regimes of behavior (temperature and humidity as atmospheric parameters).

Phenomenon : an unusual occurrence (the very tall boy is a phenomenon). *A scientific process than can be described or analyzed (a tsunami is a complex phenomenon).

Physical : tangible or perceptible (proof of a physical soul has been elusive). Requiring strength or energy (a physical hike). *Having to do with physics (light can be understood in physical terms).

Point : the sharp tip of something (tapered to a point). A salient feature (that is a good point). *A sharply defined place in space (I walked to a point 50 meters north of the entrance).

Precision : being precise (a high-precision clock). *How fine-grained a measurement or mathematical operation are made (ten-digit precision; high-precision machining).---

Pressure: the weight of important or urgent matters (pressure-free work). *The perpendicular force acting on a surface divided by its area (pascals are units of pressure).

Proportional : calculated with the use of proportions (proportional representation in politics). *Being related by a constant ration (at constant volume, the pressure and temperature of an ideal gas are proportional).

Random : without a clear aim or method (people were chosen at random). *Having a characteristic related to a probability of happening or being (the model was better if one included a small random element).

Resonance : a property of calling up a memory or emotion (that speech had great resonance in the audience). *A way in which a system can induce a similar vibration or oscillation in another system (the wine glass broke when it was in resonance with the sound source).

Sound : something we perceive in speech (the Xhosa language has click sounds). *Pressure waves transmitted through a medium that causes the sensation of hearing (harps have a pleasant sound).

Speed : a gear ratio in a vehicle (five-speed manual car). Moving or acting quickly (he reacted with great speed). *The magnitude of a velocity (the speed of the bouncing ball changed with its height).

System : an assembly of working parts with an overall function (an alarm system). An assembly of related parts (circulatory system). *Part of the physical world selected so it can be studied (sum of forces in an isolated system).

Temperature : a state of excitement (he received the criticism with high temperature). A fever (she had a temperature). *A property of objects related to their internal energy (the temperature of the air in the room was uniform).

Theory : a framework for action (she used a specific pedagogical theory to design her classes). A conjecture or guess (his theory was that the thief was an insider). *A principle, or collection of principles with scientific grounding that can explain a wide range of phenomena (the kinetic theory of gases). This word is often confounded with law or hypothesis.

Time : a moment when something takes place (he was in Miami at the time). A period during which an action takes place (they lived in a boat for a time). *A dimension in which events are ordered by when they occur (with atomic clocks we can measure time in very small intervals).

Validity : legal acceptability (the validity of this will is beyond doubt). *Being correct based on good practice (the validity of this experiment is under discussion).

Velocity . Speed (I love the velocity of my new sports car). *The time rate of change of a position vector (the velocity of an object on a complex trajectory varies even if the speed is constant).---

Wave : an activity peak (a crime wave). An increase of feeling (a wave of sadness). *A disturbance that propagates in space and time (a surface wave).

Work : the result of an activity that requires investment (the new wall was their work). An activity that needs to be kept up to obtain a result (solving those math problems took a lot of work). *The transfer of energy by means other than heat transfer (pushing the crate against friction took a lot of work).

This paper provides a tool for the creation of a physics lexicon via loanwords, adapted words, or new words, as described in the Introduction. Section 2 identifies over 260 Greek and Latin roots from which most elementary physics keywords can be derived. This is only a small fraction of the 6000 or so roots from these languages that are used in 'richer' sciences such as biology. The origin of other words is also identified; most of these are common enough (beam, body, breakdown, cold, depth, ...) that we can expect them to be present in most languages. Lastly, common suffixes and their meanings are also presented. Section 3 contrasts physics and non-physics meanings of words that have been shown to be ambiguous or problematic for introductory physics students. Possible reasons for such confusion should be evident from the loosely related multiple meanings of these words.

An appendix shows a list of 400 common words in mechanics, electricity and magnetism, and optics, showing the multiple roots that make up each of the words. It also contains a reverse dictionary of the roots in section 2 (English to Latin and Greek).

All in all, the linguistic perspective presented here should be of interest to many physics teachers, as well as to those developing curriculum and lexicons in other languages, including minority and indigenous languages. In New Zealand and Ireland, students can write their final high school exams in Te Reo Maori and Irish, respectively, and in Haiti there is an official effort to teach students in Krayòl rather than French. Hopefully, the work presented here will pave the way for even more languages to accrue a useful physics vocabulary.

As a final caveat, language-based misconceptions arise in physics [13] and must be carefully addressed before words for such concepts are developed in other languages.

The author acknowledges the Reid Hoffman Foundation for financial support, and the editors of etymonline.org for allowing me to freely use their work. Reference 10 was used under Creative Commons Attribution CC BY 4.0.

All data that support the findings of this study are included within the article (and any supplementary files).

None.

Common mechanics words (from reference [1], with a few words added)

Acceleration: L ad (to) celerare (quicken), from celer (quick)

Accuracy: L ad (to) curare (take care of)

Activity: L activus (active); L via Old French ive (pertaining to); ity (quality of being)

Adiabatic: G a (not); dia (through); batos (to be passed)

Alternating: L alternare (one after the other)

Amplitude: L amplitudinem from amplus (large, spacious)

Analog: G ana (throughout); logos (ratio, proportion)

Angle: G ankylos (bent, crooked)

Apparent: L via Old French apparere (to appear)

Astronomy: G Astron (star); nomos (regulating, rule, law)

Atom : G a (not) tomos (cutting)

Ballistic: G ballein (to throw)

Centripetal: L centrum (center) petere (go to, strive after)

Banking: PG bankon (slope)

Barometer: G baron (weight); metron (measure)

Breakdown: OE brecan (to break); ofdune (downwards)

Brightness: OE beorhtnes (brightness)

Buoyancy: Old French boie (fetter, chain), uncertain

Calorie: L calor (heat)

Centrifugal: L centrum (center); fugare (to flee)

Chord: G khorde (string, gut-string)

Collision: L com (together) lidere (strike)

Component: L com (together) ponere (to place)

Condensation: L condensare (to make dense)

Conduction: L con (with, together) ducere (to lead)

Conservation: L conservatio (keep, preserve)

Constant: L constans (firm, stable) constare (to stand together)

Contact: L con (together) tangere (to touch)

Continuous :L continere (to be uninterrupted; to hang together)

Critical :L criticus (a judge, a censor)

Decay: L decadere (to fall off)

Decibel: L decimus (tenth) + proper name

Density: L densitas (thickness)

Diffusion: L diffundere (to scatter)

Direction: L dis (apart) regere (keep straight)

Displacement: L dis (apart) platea (courtyard, open space) via Old French (OF)

Dissipation: L dissipare (to spread, scatter)

Distance: L dis (apart) stare (to stand)

Drag: PG draganan (to draw, pull)

Eddy: Scottish ydy (repetition, turning)

Efficiency: L efficere (to work out, accomplish) cia (suffix of quality)

Elastic: G elastos (ductile, flexible)

Electric: G elektron (amber)

Emissivity: L emittere (to send out)

Energy: G en (at) ergon (at work)

Engine : Late L ingenium (war machine) from L ingenium (ability, innate qualities)

Entropy: G en (toward) trope (a transformation)

Equilibrium : L aequi (equal) libra (pair of scales)

Estimation: L aestimare (to value, esteem)

Field: OE feld (pasture, open land)

Fluid: L fluere (to flow)

Fluorescence: uncertain, possibly Latin or German

Force: L fortis (strong)

Frame: OE fremman (help, promote, perform)

Frequency: L frequentia (crowd, multitude)

Friction: L fricare (to rub down)

Fringe: L via Old French fimbria (fibers, threads)

Gas: Dutch gas, G khaos (empty space)

Gauge: Unknown—perhaps Frankish galgo (rod, measuring pole)

Gravity: L gravis (heavy)

Harmonic: G harmonia (agreement of sounds)

Heat: Proto-Germanic (PG) haita (heat, warmth)

Hertz: Proper name

Horizontal : L horizontem from G horizein (bounding circle)

Hysteresis: G hysteresis (coming short)

Inertia: L iners (inactive) ia (quality)

Infrared: L infra (below); OE read (red and similar color shades)

Node: L nodus (knot) Node: L nodus (knot)Intensity: L intensus, from intendere (stretch out, strain)

Interference: L inter (between) ferire (to knock, strike)

Joule : Proper name

Kilogram: G kilioi (thousand) gramma (small weight)

Kinematics: G kinesis from kinein (motion, to move)

Kinetic: G kinetos (moved) kinein (to move)

Light: PG leukhtam (light, daylight)

Liquid : L liquidus (liquid, flowing)

Mass: G maza (cake, lump) from massein (to knead)

Measurement: L metiri (to measure) mentum (action suffix)

Mechanical: From G mekhane (device, tool)

Medium: L (middle, midst)

Method: G methodos from metha (in search) hodos (a way or manner)

Meter: G metron (measure)

Millimeter: L milli (thousandth part) metron (measure)

Momentum: L momentum (movement, moving power)

Motion: L motionem, movere (moving, to move)

Newton: Proper name

Node: L nodus (knot)

Normal: L normalis (made according to a carpenter's square)

Nucleus: L nucula (little nut)

Orbit: L orbita (wheel track, rut, course)

Oscillation : L oscillum (a swing)

Particle: L particula pars (piece, part) cula (diminutive)

Periodic: L periodicus from periodus (cycle, recurring portion)

Phase: G phasis (appearance of a star)

Physics: G physika (the natural things)

Position: L positio (act of putting) from ponere (to put, place)

Potential: L potential, from potis (powerful, possible)

Power : L potis (powerful)

Precision: L praecidere (prae before, caedere to cut)

Pressure: L pressus, premere (to press)

Probability: L via Old French probabilis (provable, credible)

Process: L procedure (to go forward)

Pulse: L via Old French pulsus, pellare (pushed, driven)

Quantum: L quanta (how much)

Radian: From L radius (spoke of a wheel)

Radiation: L radiare (to beam, shine)

Radioactive: L radius (ray), L via Old French activus, actus (capable of acting)

Reaction: L re (again); agere (to act or perform)

Reservoir: L re (back) servare (save, keep, protect)

Resonance: L re (again, back); sonare (sound)

Rolling: L via Old French rotula (small wheel)

Rotation: L rotare (to turn around, roll)

Satellite: uncertain, perhaps L satelles (attendant)

Scale: PG skaelo (split, divide)

Second: L secundus (next in time order)

Sensitivity: L via Old French sensitivus, from sensus (capable of sensation)

Shear: OE sceran (cut or clip with a sharp instrument)

Slope: OE aslupan (to slip away)

Solenoid: G solenos (pipe), eidos (form or shape)

Solid: L solidus (a solid body)

Sound: L sonus (noise)

Speed: PG spodiz (success, luck, wealth)

Spring: From PG sprengan (to leap)

State: L stare (to stand)

Statics: G statikos (causing to stand, weigh)

Strain: L stringere (to draw tight)

Stress: L strictus (compressed, drawn)

System: G syn (together) sta (stand)

Technology: G tekhne (art, skill), logia (treatise, discourse, theory)

Telescope: G teles (far); skopos (watcher)

Temperature: L temperature, temperare (tempering, to mix in due proportion)

Tension: L tensionem, tensio (to stretch)

Thermal: G therme (heat)

Thermodynamics: G therme (heat) dynamis (power) ikos (pertaining to)

Time: PG timon (time)

Torque : L torquere (to twist)

Torus: L (knot, cushion)

Turbulence: L turbulentus (disorderly, tumultuous) from turba (crowd)

Ultrasound: L ultra (beyond) sonus (sound, noise)

Ultraviolet: L ultra (beyond); viola (violet)

Uniform: L uni (one) forma (shape)

Unit: L unus (one)

Vacuum: L vacuus (empty, unoccupied)

Vapor: L vaporem (steam, heat)

Vector: L vector (carrier)

Velocity: L velox (swift, fast)

Vibration: L vibratio (a shaking)

Viscosity: From L viscum (sticky)

Volume: L volumen (that which is rolled) volvere (to roll)

Wave: PG wag (moving billow of water)

Weight: PG wihti (heaviness)

Work: PG werda (work)

Common auxiliary words (from reference [1], with a few words added)

Accuracy: L ad (to) curare (take care of)

Amount: L from ad (to) montem (mountain), to rise in number or quality

Analysis: G ana (throughout) lysis (loosen, unfasten)

Application: L app (to) plicare (to fold)

Approximation: L ad (to) proximus from prope (near)

Area: L area (level ground, open space)

Assumption: L supponere (substitute)

Atmosphere: G atmos (vapor, steam) sphaira (sphere)

Attractive: L ad (toward), trahere (to pull or draw)

Average: Arabic (A) via other languages, damage (later 'equal share of loss)

Body: OE bodig (trunk, main or principal part)

Bomb: L bombus (deep, hollow noise)

Bond: OE bend (chain, shackle, bond)

Bubble: possibly from Middle Dutch or Low German

Calculation: L calculus (pebble used in counting, from calx, limestone)

Cause: L causa (cause, reason)

Center: L centrum (fixed point of a compass) from G kentron (sharp point)

Circle: L circulus (small ring, hoop)

Classical: L classicus (relating to higher classes of Roman people)

Cloud: OE clod (mass of rock, hill)

Coefficient: L co (same) efficere (accomplish)

Cold: PG kaldjon (cold)

Concept: L con (intensive prefix) capere (to take)

Conversion: L com (together) vertere (to turn)

Cool: PG koluz (not warm)

Cosine: L complementi (complement) sinus (fold, curve, bosom)

Curve: L curvus (crooked, bent, from curvare, to bend)

Definition: L definire (to limit, determine, explain) de (completely) finis (boundary)

Description: L de (down) scribere (to write)

Determine: L de (off) terminare (mark the end or boundary)

Diagram: G dia (across) graphein (write, draw)

Diameter: G dia (across) metron (a measure)

Dimension: L dis (apart) metiri (to measure)

Earth: PG ertho (earth)

Echo: G ekhein (to resound)

Equation: L aequatio (equal distribution, from aequare)

Exert: L exertus (from exerere, thrust out, ex out, serere attach, join)

Expansion: L ex (out) pandere (to spread)

Experiment: L experiri from ex (out of) peritus (tested)

Expression: L exprimere (represent, describe, literally press out)

External: L externus, from exterus (on the outside)

Factor: L factor (maker, doer, performer, from facere, to do) Fall: PG fallanan (drop from a height, decay, die)

Final: L finis (end)

Free: OG friaz (not in bondage)

Fundamental: L fundare (to found)

Glass: PG glasam (glass)

Graph: G graphein (to write)

Hot: PG haita (hot)

Humidity: L via Old French humidus (damp, wet)

Ice: PG is (ice)

Independent: In (not) dependere (de from pendere hang down)

Information: L informare in (into) formare (to shape)

Initial: L inire, in (enter) ire (to go)

Instantaneous: L instantem (urgent, standing near)

Isotropy: G iso (the same); tropos (a way or manner)

Law: OE lagu (ordinance, rule) from PG lagam (put, lay)

Level: L libella (diminutive of libram small balance or scale)

Linear: L linearis, from linea (string, line)

Loudness: Middle English hlud (noisy) + suffix

Magnitude: L magnus (great) tudo (suffix for abstract nouns)

Material: L materia (matter, stuff, wood)

Maximum: L maximus, superlative of magnus (great, large)

Molecule: L moles (mass, barrier) cule (diminutive suffix)

Moon: PG menon (moon)

Nature: L natura from natus (born)

Negligible: L nec (not) legere (pick up, select)

Number: L numerus (number, quantity)

Object: L obiectum (thing put before)

Observation: L ob (in front of) servare (to watch)

Order: L ordinem from or do (rank, series, pattern)

Parallel: G para (beside) allelois (each other)

Path: OGer pfad (path)

Perpendicular: L per (thoroughly) pendere (hang, weigh)

Pivot: French (F) pivot (hinge pin, pivot) uncertain origin

Plane: L planum (flat surface)

Point: L punctum (small hole)

Possible: L posse (to be able)

Principle: L principium from primus (first) capere (to take)

Problem: G problema (proposed task, question)

Proportion: L pro (for) partio (division, from pars, a part or piece)

Pump: Middle Dutch pompe (water conduit, pipe)

Push: L pulsare from pulsus (to push, drive)

Quantity: L quantus (of what size?)

Radius: L radius (spoke of wheel)

Reduction: L re (back) ducere (bring, lead)

Relation: L relationem (bringing back, restoring)

Relative: L relativus (having reference or relation)

Represent: L re (intensive prefix) praesse (be before)

Resistance: L resistentia from resistere (to oppose, re against, sistere stand firm)

Rest: OE reste (rest, bed, mental peace)

Result: L resilire (rebound)

Sign: L signum (identifying mark)

Significant: L participle of significare (signum identifying mark facere to make or do)

Sine: L sinus (fold, curve, bossom)

Size: L assidere (to sit beside)

Slow: PG sleowaz (not clever, torpid, lazy)

Solve: from solution: L solutionem (via solver, to loosen, untie or dissolve)

Space: L spatium (room, area)

Spin: PG spewan (twist fibers into thread)

Slow: PG sleowaz (not clever, torpid, lazy)

Standard: uncertain; possibly from Old French estandardt (military banner)

Stationary: L statio (standing, opst, position)

Strategy: G strategia (office or command of a general, strategos)

Substance: L sub (up to, under) stare (to stand)

Substitute: L sub (under) statuere (set up)

Surface: L superficies (sur above, facies face or side)

Theory: G thea (a view) horan (to see)

Transfer: L trans (across, beyond) ferre (to carry)

Transition: L transitionem (going across or over)

Transparency: L trans (across, through); parere (come in sight)

Travel: from travail (labor, toil), from L tripalium (instrument of torture). Uncertain

Understand: OE stand in the midst of, under (between) standan (to stand)

Unknown: OE un (not) cnawan (perceive, distinguish)

Value: L valere (be strong, be worth)

Vertical: L vertex (highest point)

Water: Old English (OE) woeterian (moisten, irrigate)

Wind: PG winda (air in motion)

Zero: A sifr (cipher from Sanskrit for desert, naught)

Common electricity and magnetism words (from references [8–10])

Alternator: L alter (the other)

Ammeter: Name + G metron (measure, size)

Amplitude (modulation): L amplus (large, spacious); modulari (regulate)

Anode: G ana (up); hodos (way)

Antenna: L antemna, antenna (sail yard)

Armature: L arma: (weapons; later, protective cover)

Aurora borealis: L aurora (goddess of dawn); boreas (god of the north wind)

Battery: L battuere (thrashing, assault)

Breakdown (voltage): OE/PG brecan (to divide violently); dune (down the hill)

Cable: L capulum (lasso, rope, from capere, to take, seize)

Capacitance, capacitor: L capax (able to hold)

Cathode: G cata (downward); hodos (way)

Charge: L carricare (to load a wagon or cart)

Circuit: L circuitus (a going around, from circum, round)

Coaxial: L co (together); axis (axis, pivot)

Coil: L co (together); legere (to gather)

Commutator: L com: intensive prefix; mutare: to change

Conduction: L com (together); ducere (to lead)

Current: Old French corant (flowing)

Diamagnetism: G dia (throughout); magnetos (the Magnesian stone)

Dielectric: G dia (throughout); elektron (amber)

Digital: L digitus (finger or toe)

Dipole: L di (two) ; polus (end of an axis)

Direct (current): L diregere (to set straight)

Discharge: L dis (do the opposite of); charge (see above)

Domain (magnetic): L, G dominium (property, from domus: home)

Drift (velocity): OE/PG + L (anything driven)

Dynamo: G dynamis (power)

Electricity and derived words: G elektron (amber)

Electromotive force: G+L elektron + motus (moving, motion)

Electroscope: G skopein (to look at; examine)

Electrostatics: G elektron + statikos (causing to stand)

Ferromagnetism: L+G ferrum, magnetos (iron, the Magnesian stone)

Filter: L filtrum (felt)

Frequency: L frequential (great crowd)

Galvanometer: proper name + G (metron)

Generator: L generare (to bring forth)

Ground, grounding (wire): OE/PG grund (bottom, surface of the earth)

Impedance L in (into); pes (foot)

Inductance: L in (into); ducere (to lead)

Ion: G ienai (to go)

Junction (law, rule): L iungere (to join)

Lag (time): probably Scandinavian

Light: OE/PG lithan (to set on fire)

Lightbulb: see above; bolbos (onion)

Loop: Celtic or Old Norse

Magnet, magnetic: G magnetos (Magnesian stone)

Motor: L movere (to move)

Multimeter: L multus (many)

Nonconductor: Lnon (by no means, not at all)

Oscilloscope: L oscillare (to swing; scope: above)

Parallel: G para (beside); allos (other)

Paramagnet(ism): G para (alongside); magnetos (see above)

Permeability: L permeare (to pass through)

Permittivity: L permittere (to let through)

Phasor: G phasis (appearance of a star or the moon)

Polar(ization): L polus (end of an axis)

Potentiometer: L potis (powerful, capable)

Power transmission: L potis (powerful); trans (across); mittere (send)

Quality factor (Q-value): L quails (what kind of); facere (to do)

Radiation: L radius (beam of light)

Reactance: L re (back); actum (a thing done)

Resistance: L re (against); sistere (to stand firm)

Resonance: L re (again); sonare (to sound)

RMS (root-mean square) L rot (cause, origin); medius (in the middle); quadrus (a square)

Rotor: L rotare (to turn around)

Series: L serere (to join, arrange, attach)

Signal: L signum (identifying mark)

Solenoid: G solen (pipe); eidos (shape)

Terminal (of battery): L terminus (end, boundary)

Vector: L vehere (to carry)

Transformer: L trans (across); formare (to form)

Voltage: proper name + French suffix

Voltmeter: proper name + G (see above)

Windings: OE/PG windan (to turn, twist, curl)

Common optics words (from references [8–10])

Aberration (chromatic, spherical): L ab (off, away); errare (to stray, wander)

Aperture (circular): L aperire (to open, uncover)

Axis of lens: G via L axon (axis, axle)

Beam splitter: OE beam (rafter, post); PG via OE spleitanan (to split)

Binoculars: L bi (twofold); ocularis (of the eye)

Camera (pinhole): G via L kamara (vaulted chamber; short for camera oscura)

Coating (of lenses): Unknown via Old French cote (robe, tunic)

Coherent (light): L com (together); haerere (to stick)

Color: L colos, color (covering, color)

Concave (mirror): L con (intensive prefix); cavus (hollow)

Depth (of field): PG, via Middle English dep (depth)

Destructive (interference): L destruere (to tear down)

Diffraction: L dis (apart); frangere (to break)

Dispersion: L dis (apart); spargere (to scatter)

Eyepiece: PG via OE ege (eye); Gaulish via OF piece (small part)

Far point (of eye): PG via OE fer (remote); L punctum (small hole)

Fiber: L fibre (fiber, filament)

Focus: L focus (hearth, fireplace)

Glass: PG via OE glaes (glass)

Grating: L grata (lattice)

Hyperopia: L hyper (over, in excess); G ops (eye)

Image: L via French imitari (to copy)

Incidence (angle): L incidere (to happen, befall)

Index (of refraction ): L indicare (to point, list); re (back); frangere (to break)

Instruments: L in (on); struere (to build)

Intensity (of light): L intendere (to stretch)

Interference: L via Old French: entre (between); ferir (to strike)

Lens: L lentis (lentil)

Light (polarized, rays, scattering of, white): see EM list

Magnification (angular): L magnus (great); facere (to do, make)

Microscope: G via L mikros (small); scopium (to view, examine)

Mirror: L mirare (to look at)

Myopia: G myein (to shut); ops (eye)

Near (point): OE near (close, near)

Object (distance) L obicere: to present, in front

Optics: G optikos (having to do with sight)

Paraxial (axis): L parare (make ready); axis (see above)

Path (length): OE paþ (narrow passageway)

Polarization (of ligh):t G pol via L (pole)

Presbyopia: L presbys (old man); G ops (eye)

Principal (axis): L primus (first); capere (to take)

Prism (binoculars): G prisma (something sawed)

Rainbow: OE regn (rain); PG via OE boga (something bent; archery bow)

Ray (diagram, tracing): L radius (ray, spoke)

Reflection: L re (back); flectere (to bend)

Refraction: L re (back); frangere (to break)

Resolution: L resolutionem (reduction of things into simpler forms)

Spectrometer: see Spectrum

Spectrum: L spectrum (appearance, image)

Sunglasses PG via OE sunne (the sun); glaes (see above)

Sunset: possibly from OE word for 'to go down'

Telescope: G tele (far); skopos (watcher)

Thin (lens): OE þynne (narrow)

Transmission (grating): L trans (across); mittere (to throw)

Unpolarized: PG via OE on (prefix of reversal or removal); lithan (see above)

Wavelength: PG via OE wafian (to move back and forth); PG langitho, via OE (length)

English to Greek and Latin roots

Across: (L) trans: transfer

Act or perform (to): (L) agere: reaction

Activity: (L) actum: reactance

Again, back: (L) re: reduction, reaction

Against: (G) an, ana, ant, anti: anode, antinode

Air: (G) aer: aeronautics

Air, lung: (G) pneu: pneumatic

Amber: (G) elektron: electricity

Among, between: (L) inter: intersection

Animated: (G) mat: automatic

Appearance: (L) phasis: phase

Appearance: (L) spectrum: spectrum

Around: (G) peri: perimeter

Arrange (to): (L) serere: series

Art, skill: (G) techn: technique

As if: (L) quasi: quasar

At: (L) en: energy

Around: (L) circum: circuit

Away: (G) ap: apogee

Away: (L) ab: aberration

Axle: (G) axon: axis

Backward: (L) retro: retrograde

Ball: (G) spher: spherical

Beam, spoke: (L) radi: radius

Beating, assault: (L) battuere: battery

Befall (to): (L) incidere: incidence

Before: (L) prae, pre: precision

Below: (L) infra: infrared

Below: (L) sub: submerge

Bend (to): (L) flectere: reflection

Bent: (L) curv: curvature

Beside, near: (G) para: parallel

Between: (L) inter: intersection

Beyond: (L) ultra: ultraviolet

Bottom: (L) fund: fundamental

Break (to): (L) frangere: diffraction

Break: (L) fract: fracture

Bring forth (to): (L) generare: generator

Build (to): (L) struere: instrument

Carry (to): (L) vect, veh: vector

Carry (to): (L) carricare: charge

Carry: (L) fer: transfer

Cause, origin: (L) rot: root

Cause or motive: (L) caus: cause

Cause to stand (to): (L) sist: resistance

Chain: (L) caten: catenary

Chamber (vaulted): (G) kamara: camera

Center: (G) centr : eccentricity

Change (to): (L) mutare: commutator

Circle: (L) orb: orbit

Circular: (G) cycl: cyclic

Clap: (L) plos: explosion

Cling (to): (L) hes: adhesive

Cold: (L) frig: refrigerator

Compressed: (L) strictus: stress

Copy (to): (L) imitari: image

Covering: (L) colos: color

Crown: (L) coron: corona

Cut (to): (L) sec: segment

Cut: (G) tom: atom

Dissolution: (G) lysis: electrolysis

Down: (G) cata: cathode

Draw (to): (G) graph: diagram

Draw tight (to): (L) stringere: strain

Egg: (L) ov: oval

Empty: (L) vac: vacuum

End: (L) fin: final

End, boundary: (L) termin: terminal

Eye, of the: (L) ocularis: binoculars

Eye: (G) ops, opt: optics

Fall off (to): (L) decadere: decay

Fall short (to): (G) hysteresis: hysteresis

Far, end: (G) tele: telescope

Felt: (L) filtrum: filter

Finger: (L) digitus: digital

Fire: (L) ign: igneous

First: (L) prim: principle

Flat: (L) plan: planar

Flee (to): (L) fug: centrifugal

Flow: (L) flu: flux

Flow: (G) rhe: rheostat

Fold: (L) plic: application

Fold: (L) sinus: sine

Foot: (L) pes: impedance

Fork: (L) furc: bifurcation

Forward: (L) pro: propulsion

Foundation: (L) thes: hypothesis

From, out: (L) ex: exert

Front (in): (L) obicere: object

Gather (to): (L) legere: coil

Glass: (L) vitr: vitreous

Glowing: (L) cand: incandescent

Go (to): (G) ienai: ion

Go to: (L) pet: centripetal

Goddess of dawn: (L) aurora: aurora

Great crowd: (L) frequential: frequency

Half: (G) hemi: hemisphere

Half: (L) semi: semimajor

Hand: (L) manu: manometer

Hand (of the): (G) chir: chirality

Hang (to): (L) pend: pendulum

Hearing: (L) audi: auditory

Hearth: (L) foc: focus

Heat: (L) calor: calorimetry

Heat: (G) therm: thermodynamics

Heavy: (L) grav: gravity

Hold, capacity: (L) cap, capax: concept, capacitor

Home: (L) dominium: domain

How much: (L) quantum: quantum

Hundred: (L): cent: centimeter

Identifying mark: (L) sign: signal

Iron: (L) ferr: ferromagnetism

Island: (L) insul: insulation

Join (to): (L) iungere: junction

Keep, preserve (to): (L) serv: conservation

Knot: (L) nod: node

Know (to): (L) sci: science

Lack of: (L) vap: vapor

Large, spacious: (L) ampl: amplitude

Large, great: (L) magn: magnification

Large: (G) meg: megawatt

Lattice: (L) grata: grating

Lead: (L) duct: conductor

Lentil: (L) lentis: lens

Let through (to): (L) permittere: permittivity

Level: (L) equ: equivalent

Like: (G) oid: asteroid

Line: (G) lin: linear

Light: (L) lumin: illumination

Light: (G) phot: photoelectric

Long: (G) macro: macroscopic

Look (to): (L) mirare: mirror

Make (to): (L) fac, fact: factor

Make ready: (L) parare: paraxial

Many: (L) multus: multiple

Many: (G) poly: polyatomic

Measure: (G) metr: thermometer

Middle: (L) medi: medium

Milk: (G) galact: galaxy

Moon: (L) lun: lunar

Motion: (G) cine, kine: kinematics

Mould: (G) plasm: plasma

Mountain: (L) mont: amount

Nature: (G) phys: physics

Near: (L) proxim: proximity

Number: (L) numer: numerical

Nut: (L) nuc: nucleus

One: (G) mon: monoatomic

One: (L) un: unit

Onion: (G) bolbos: lightbulb

Open (to): (L) aperire: aperture

Order: (L) ordin: coordinate

Other: (L) alter: alternator

Out: (G) ec: eccentricity

Outer: (L) exter: external

Pass through (to): (L) permeare: permeability

Part, piece: (L) part: particle

Pipe: (G) solen: solenoid

Place: (G) top: topology

Plait: (L) plex: complexity

Plan: (G) schem: schematic

Point (to): (L) indicare: indicate

Pole: (G) pol: dipole

Pour (to): (G) fus: diffusion

Power: (G) dynam: dynamics

Powerful: (L) potis: potential

Put (to): (L) pon, posit: position

Press: (L) prem, press: pressure

Push (to): (L) puls: pulse

Quick: (L) celer: acceleration

Quick: (L) veloc: velocity

Regulate (to): (L) modulare: modulation

Roll: (L) cilind: cylinder

Roll, revolution: (L) volv, volut: revolution

Rope: (L) capulum: cable

Rub : (L) fric: friction

Rule, regulation: (L) nomos: nomenclature

Sail: (L) antenna: antenna

Same (the): (G) iso: equal

Sawed (something): (L) prisma: prism

Scatter (to): (L) diffundere: diffusion

Science, knowledge: (G) mathema: mathematics

Self: (G) auto: automatic

Send out (to): (G) emittere: emissivity

Send across: (L) mitt: transmission

Set free (to): (L) solv, solut: solution

Set straight (to): (L) diregere: direct

Shade: (L) umbr: penumbra

Shady: (L) opac: opacity

Shaking: (L) vibratio: vibration

Shape: (G) eidos: solenoid

Shut (to): (G) myein: myopia

Simplification: (L) resolutionem: resolution

Small: (G) micr: microscope

Small hole: (L) pung: point

Sound: (L) son: resonance

Space: (L) spati: spatial

Speculation: (G) theory: theoretical

Split: (L) fiss: fissure

Spread (to): (L) pans: expansion

Square: (L) quadrus: square

Stability: (L) stand: stability

Stand: (L) statu: substitute

Star: (G) astr: astronomy

Star: (L) sider: sidereal

Star: (L) stell: constellation

Stone: (L) calc: calculus

Stone of Magnesia: (G) Magnetos: magnetism

Straight: (L) reg: direction

Stray: (L) err: aberration

Stretch (to): (L) tend, tens: tension

Stretch: (G) ton: tone

Strong: (L) fort: force

Sun: (G) helio: heliocentric

Sun: (L) sol: solar

Swift: (G) tach: tachometer

Swing: (L) oscill: oscillation

Tear down (to): (L) destruere: destructive

Tenth part: (L) decim: decimal

Thick, condensation: (L) dens: density

Thick: (L) visc: viscosity

Thousand: (G) kilo: kilogram

Thousand: (L) milli: millimeter

Time: (G) chron: chronometer

Touch: (L) tang: tangent

Toward: (L) ad, al, ap: approximate

Trop: (L) transformation: entropy

Treatise: (G) logos: metrology

Try or test (to): (L) experiri: experiment

Tube: (G) sipho: siphon

Turn: (L) vert: conversion

Twist: (L) torqu: torque

Two: (L) bi: binary

Two: (G) di: dipole

Under: (G) hyp: hypothesis

Uninterrupted (to be): (L) continere: continuous

Universe: (G) cosm: cosmos

Upon: (G) epi: epicycle

View: (G) scop: telescope

Water: (L) aqu: aqueous

Water: (G) hydr: hydrostatic

Way, path: (G) od, hod: method, anode

Weapon: (L) arm: armature

Weigh: (G) bar: barometer

What kind of: (L) qualis: quality

Wheel: (L) rot: rotation

Wind: (G) anem: anemometer

With, together: (L) con, col: coaxial, collision

With: (G) sym, syn: symbol

Work: (G) erg: energy

Write (to): (L) scrib, scrip: subscript

(Reproduced with permission from [5]).