Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Combined archaeobotanical and linguistic evidence does not support the early domestication of Brassica rapa varieties

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Vegetation History and Archaeobotany Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The present study utilises a multidisciplinary approach towards revealing new insights into the study of the domestication history of Brassica rapa in China. A critical analysis of the current state-of-the-art research reveals a considerable distortion of data stemming from misinterpreted excavation reports of various archaeological sites discovered in China at the beginning of the first half of the twentieth century. The network of sources is untangled and brought to light while considering secondary linguistic evidence concerning the terminologies for the cultivated varieties of B. rapa utilised in the Chinese written histories. An in-depth study of phonetic reconstructions of the earliest attestations of terms connected with varieties of B. rapa (var. rapa, chinensis and pekinensis) reveals a potential link with non-Sinitic languages. A meta-analysis of contemporary assemblages of floral macro remains in mainland China conducted within this study does not support verifiable evidence of the cultivation of B. rapa varieties in Neolithic times.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Source Kateřina Šamajová (illustrations); Hýbl et al. (2016, pp. 71, 75, 77) (seed images)

Fig. 2

Source Xi’an Banpo bowuguan bian (1982, p. 28)

Fig. 3

Source Zhongguo kexueyuan kaogu yanjiu suo bian (1963), picture LVI, P. 4753

Fig. 4

Source Zhongguo kexueyuan kaogu yanjiu suo bian (1963, p. 16)

Fig. 5
Fig. 6

Source Hunan sheng bowuguan bian (1973, p. 36)

Fig. 7

Source Hu (1330). https://ctext.org/library.pl?if=en&file=33424&page=98&remap=gb

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Anderson EN (1988) The food of China. Yale University Press, New Haven and London

    Google Scholar 

  • Atahan P, Dodson J, Li XQ, Zhou XY, Hu SM, Chen L, Bertuch F, Grice K (2011) Early neolithic diets at Baijia, Wei River Valley, China: stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis of human and faunal remains. J Archaeol Sci 38:2,811–2,817. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2011.06.032

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bettinger RL, Barton L, Morgan C, Chen FH, Wang H, Guilderson TP, Ji DX, Zhang DJ (2010) The transition to agriculture at Dadiwan, People’s Republic of China. Curr Anthropol 51:703–714. https://doi.org/10.1086/655982

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chang KC (1968) The archaeology of ancient China, Revised and enlarged edition (with illustrations including maps). Yale University Press, New Haven and London

    Google Scholar 

  • Chang KC (1970) The beginnings of agriculture in the Far East. Antiquity 44(175):175–185. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X0004148X

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chang KC (1977a) The archaeology of ancient China, 3rd edn, revised and enlarged. Yale University Press, New Haven and London

    Google Scholar 

  • Chang KC (1977b) Food in Chinese culture: anthropological and historical perspectives. Yale University Press, New Haven and London

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen WH (2002) Nongye Kaogu 农业考古 (Agricultural Archaeology). 20世纪中国文物考古发现与研究丛书 (Twentieth Century Chinese Archaeological Discoveries and Research Series). Wenwu chubanshe 文物出版社, Beijing

  • Chen W, Wang W-M (2012) Middle-late holocene vegetation history and environment changes revealed by pollen analysis of a core at Qingdao of Shandong Province, East China. Quat Int 254:68–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2011.04.005

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cheung C, Zhang H, Hepburn JC, Yang DYY, Richards MP (2019) Stable isotope and dental caries data reveal abrupt changes in subsistence economy in ancient china in response to global climate change. PLoS ONE 14:e0218943. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0218943

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crawford GW (2009) Agricultural origins in North China pushed back to the Pleistocene-Holocene boundary. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 106:7,271–7,272. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0903375106

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crawford GW, Underhill A, Zhao ZJ, Lee G-A, Feinman G, Nicholas L, Luan FS, Yu HG, Fang H, Cai FS (2005) Late neolithic plant remains from Northern China: preliminary results from Liangchengzhen, Shandong1. Curr Anthropol 46:309–317. https://doi.org/10.1086/428788

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dixon GR (2006) Vegetable brassicas and related crucifers, 1st edn. CABI, Wallingford

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Faltýnek D, Kučera O, Owsianková H, Šamajová K, Čižmárová R (2018) Návrat čínského zelí do Evropy I.: O původu druhů (Chinese Cabbage returns to Europe I: about the origins of the species). Nový Orient: Odborný Čtvrtletník Orientálního Ústavu AV čr 73:45–56

    Google Scholar 

  • Friedt W, Tu JX, Fu TD (2018) Academic and economic importance of Brassica napus rapeseed. In: Liu SY, Snowdon R, Chalhoub B (eds) The Brassica napus genome. Springer, Cham, pp 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-43694-4_1

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Gansu sheng wenwu kaogu yanjiu suo bianzhe 甘肃省文物考古研究所编著(2006) Qin’an Dadiwan 秦安大地湾. Wenwu chubanshe 文物出版社, Beijing

  • Gómez-Campo C (1999) Biology of brassica coenospecies, 1st edn. Elsevier, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Ho P-T (1975) The cradle of the East: an inquiry into the indigenous origins of techniques and ideas of Neolithic and early historic China, 5000–1000 B.C. University of Chicago Press, Chicago

    Google Scholar 

  • Hong D-Y, Blackmore S (2015) Plants of China: a companion to the flora of China. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Hu SH (1330) Yinshan Zhengyao 飲膳正要.: https://ctext.org/wiki.pl?if=gb&res=968624&remap=gb

  • Huang HT, Needham J (2000) Science and civilization in China: biology and biological technology, Part 5: fermentations and food science, vol 6. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Hunan sheng bowuguan bian 湖南省博物馆编 (1973) Changsha Mawangdui Tomb Changsha mawangdui hanmu 长沙馬王堆漢墓. Hunan Renmin chubanshe 湖南人民出版社

  • Hýbl M, Kopecký P, Doležalová I, Petrželová I, Smékalová K, Dušková E, Stavělíková H, Dušek K (2016) Semena a plody vybraných druhů zelenin, léčivých rostlin a speciálních plodin, 1. Část—Zeleniny (Seeds and Fruits of Selected Species of Vegetables, Medicinal Plants and Special Crops, vol 1—Vegetables). Agriprint, Olomouc

  • IA, CASS 中国社会科学 院考古研究所 (2010) Chinese Archaeology—Neolithic Volume (中国考古学—新石器时代卷). Zhongguo Shehui Kexue 中国社会科学, Beijing

  • Idrees N, Tabassum B, Sarah R, Hussain MK (2019) Natural compound from genus Brassica and their therapeutic activities. In: Akhtar MS, Swamy MK, Sinniah UR (eds) Natural bio-active compounds: production and applications, vol 1. Springer, Singapore, pp 477–491. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-7154-7_15

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Jia SX (535–544) Qimin Yaoshu 齊民要術: https://ctext.org/wiki.pl?if=gb&res=537732&remap=gb

  • Jin GY, Wu WW, Zhang KS, Wang ZB, Wu XH (2014) 8000-year old rice remains from the North Edge of the Shandong Highlands, East China. J Archaeol Sci 51:34–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2013.01.007

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jin GY, Wagner M, Tarasov PE, Wang F, Liu YC (2016) Archaeobotanical records of Middle and Late Neolithic agriculture from Shandong Province, East China, and a major change in regional subsistence during the Dawenkou Culture. Holocene 26:1,605–1,615. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959683616641746

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Karlgren B (1950) The Book of Odes: Chinese Text, Transcription and Translation. A reprint of the translation only from his papers. Bulletin of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities (BMFEA) 16 and 17. The Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities, Stockholm

  • Kern M (2010) Early Chinese literature, beginnings through Western Han. In: Owen S (ed) The Cambridge history of Chinese literature, vol 1. To 1375. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 1–115

    Google Scholar 

  • Lanehart RE, Tykot RH, Underhill AP, Luan FS, Yu HG, Fang H, Fengshu C, Feinman G, Nicholas L (2011) Dietary adaptation during the Longshan Period in China: stable isotope analyses at Liangchengzhen (Southeastern Shandong). J Archaeol Sci 38:2,171–2,181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2011.03.011

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee G-A, Crawford GW, Liu L, Chen XC (2007) Plants and people from the Early Neolithic to Shang periods in North China. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104:1,087–1,092. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0609763104

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Legge J (1871) The She King or The Book of Poetry. The Chinese Classics 4, Pts 1 & 2. Lane, Crawford, Hong Kong

  • Li CW (1981) The origin, evolution, taxonomy and hybridization of Chinese cabbage. In: Talekar NS, Griggs TD (eds) Chinese cabbage. Proceedings of the first international symposium. Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center (AVRDC), Shanua, Tainan, pp 3–10

  • Li H-L (1983) The domestication of plants in China: ecogeographical considerations. In: Keightley DN (ed) The origins of Chinese civilization. University of California Press, Berkeley, pp 21–64

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Liexian Zhuan 列仙傳 (2nd c. CE) Author unknown. https://ctext.org/lie-xian-zhuan/zhs

  • Liu L, Ge W, Bestel S, Jones D, Shi JM, Song YH, Chen XC (2011) Plant exploitation of the Last Foragers at Shizitan in the Middle Yellow River Valley China: evidence from Grinding Stones. J Archaeol Sci 38:3,524–3,532. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2011.08.015

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luo CX, Zheng Z, Zou H, Bai JJ, Yuan DS, Wang H, Pan AD, Li CH, Li J, Cao LL (2012) Palaeoenvironmental study of the Shiniusi archaeological sites in the Wujiang Drainage Area, Upper Yangtze River, Chongqing Region, China. Quat Int 281:66–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2011.10.005

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luo WH, Li J, Yang YZ, Zhang JQ, Gu CG, Fang F, Gu WF, Zhang JZ (2018) Evidence for crop structure from Phytoliths at the Dongzhao site on the central plains of China from Xinzhai to Erligang periods. J Archaeol Sci Rep 17:852–859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2017.12.018

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McAlvay AC, Ragsdale AP, Mabry ME, Qi XS, Bird KA, Velasco P, An H, Pires JC, Emshwiller E (2021) Brassica rapa domestication: untangling wild and feral forms and convergence of crop morphotypes. Mol Biol Evol 38:3,358–3,372. https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msab108

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Minford J, Lau JSM (2000) Classical Chinese literature: an anthology of translations, From Antiquity to the Tang dynasty, vol 1. The Chinese University Press, Hong Kong

    Google Scholar 

  • Penny B (2008) Liexian zhuan 列仙傳. In: Pregadio F (ed) The encyclopedia of Taoism. Routledge, London and New York, pp 653–654

    Google Scholar 

  • Prakash S, Hinata K (1980) Taxonomy, cytogenetics and origin of crop Brassicas, a review. Opera Botanica 55:50–57

    Google Scholar 

  • Qi X, An H, Ragsdale AP, Hall TE, Gutenkunst RN, Pires JC, Barker MS (2017) Genomic inferences of domestication events are corroborated by written records in Brassica rapa. Mol Ecol 26:3,373–3,388. https://doi.org/10.1111/mec.14131

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rakow G (2004) Species origin and economic importance of Brassica. In: Pua E-C, Douglas CJ (eds) Brassica biotechnology in agriculture and forestry, vol 54. Springer, Berlin, pp 3–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-06164-0_1

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Sanskrit Dictionary (n.d.) “mulaka”. https://www.sanskritdictionary.com/?q=m%C5%ABlaka

  • Schuessler A (2007) ABC etymological dictionary of old Chinese. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu

    Google Scholar 

  • Shi XB (1986) The discovery of the pre-Yangshao Culture and its significance 前仰韶文化的发现及其意义. Zhongguo kaogu xue yanjiu—xia nai xiansheng kaogu wushi nian jinian lunwen ji (er). 中国考古学研究—夏鼐先生考古五十年纪念论文集. Kexue chubanshe 科学出版社, Shanghai

  • Shi XB (1992) The discovery of the Pre-Yangshao culture and its significance. In: Aikens CM, Rhee SN (eds) Pacific Northeast Asia in prehistory: hunter-fisher-gatherers, farmers, and sociopolitical elites. Washington State University Press, Pullman, pp 125–132

    Google Scholar 

  • Shi T (2022) Understanding the transition to agropastoralism in North China: archaeobotanical and zooarchaeological evidence. Archaeol Res Asia 29:100345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ara.2021.100345

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shijing 詩經 (date unknown): https://ctext.org/book-of-poetry/zhs

  • Simoons FJ (1991) Food in China: a cultural and historical inquiry. CRC Press, Boca Raton

    Google Scholar 

  • Starostin S, Dybo A, Mudrak O (2003) Etymological dictionary of altaic languages. Brill, Leiden

    Google Scholar 

  • Su J (659) Xinxiu Bencao 新修本草: https://ctext.org/wiki.pl?if=gb&res=923585&remap=gb

  • Sun RF (2015) Economic/academic importance of Brassica rapa. In: Wang XW, Kole C (eds) The Brassica rapa genome compendium of plant genomes 4. Springer, Berlin, pp 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-47901-8_1

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Sun N, Li XQ, Dodson J, Zhou XY, Zhao KL, Yang Q (2013) Plant diversity of the Tianshui Basin in the Western Loess Plateau during the Mid-Holocene—charcoal records from archaeological sites. Quat Int 308–309:27–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2013.05.014

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tao HJ (499) Bencao Jing Jizhu 本草經集注: https://ctext.org/wiki.pl?if=gb&res=987826&remap=gb

  • Waley A (1937) The Book of Songs (translation of the Shih Ching). Allen & Unwin, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang C, Lu HY, Zhang JP, He KY, Huan XJ (2016) Macro-process of past plant subsistence from the upper Paleolithic to Middle Neolithic in China: a quantitative analysis of multi archaeobotanical data. PLoS ONE 11:e0148136. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0148136

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang XC, Mo DW, Li CH, Yu S-Y, Xue B, Liu B, Wang H, Shi CX (2017) Environmental changes and human activities at a fortified site of the Liangzhu Culture in Eastern China: evidence from Pollen and Charcoal records. Quat Int 438:189–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2017.05.001

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang JJ, Zhao XY, Wang H, Liu L (2019) Plant exploitation of the first farmers in Northwest China: microbotanical evidence from Dadiwan. Quat Int 529:3–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2018.10.019

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang X, Zhao ZJ, Zhong H, Chen XL, Hu YW (2022) Manuring and land exploitation in the Central Plains of late Longshan (2200–1900 BCE) China: implications of stable isotopes of archaeobotanical remains. J Archaeol Sci 148:105691. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2022.105691

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wu WW, Wang XH, Wu XH, Jin GY, Tarasov PE (2014) The early Holocene archaeobotanical record from the Zhangmatun site situated at the northern edge of the Shandong Highlands, China. Quat Int 348:183–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.02.008

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xi’an Banpo bowuguan bian 西安半坡博物馆编 (1982) Xi’an Banpo 西安半坡. Wenwu chubanshe chuban 文物出版社出版, Beijing

  • Xu S (2nd c. AD) Shuowen Jiezi 說文解字. https://ctext.org/shuo-wen-jie-zi/zhs

  • Yu YS (1977) Han China. In: Chang KC (ed) Food in Chinese culture: anthropological and historical perspectives. Yale University Press, New Haven and London, pp 55–83

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhao ZJ (2011) New archaeobotanic data for the study of the origins of agriculture in China. Curr Anthropol 52(S4):S295–S306. https://doi.org/10.1086/659308

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao KL, Wang M, Shan MC, Zhang YP, Yhou XY, Chen FY, Li XQ (2022) The early Holocene ecology of hilly terrain reconstructed by plant remains from Ping’an Cave in northern China. Rev Palaeobot Palynol 304:104718. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.revpalbo.2022.104718

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zheng SB (2006) Lüelun Mawangdui Hanmu Qiance Jizai de Shiwu 论马王堆汉墓遣册记载的祭器. Hunan Sheng Bowuguan 湖南省博物馆 12:305–311

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhongguo kexueyuan kaogu yanjiu suo bian 中國科學院考古研究所编 (1963) Xi’an Banpo 西安半坡. Wenwu chuban she 文物出版社, Peking

  • Zhou G (3rd c. BC) Erya 爾雅. https://ctext.org/er-ya/zhs

  • Zhou LG, Garvie-Lok SJ (2015) Isotopic evidence for the expansion of wheat consumption in Northern China. Archaeol Res Asia 4:25–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ara.2015.10.001

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhu YP (2013) The early neolithic in the Central Yellow River Valley c. 7000–4000 BC. In: Underhill AP (ed) A companion to Chinese archaeology. Wiley-Blackwell, Hoboken, pp 169–193

    Google Scholar 

  • Żyła N, Fidler J, Babula-Skowrońska D (2021) Economic and Academic Importance of Brassica oleracea. In: The Brassica oleracea Genome. Springer, Cham, pp 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-31005-9_1

Download references

Funding

This work was supported by the Project Improving schematics of Doctoral student grant competition and their pilot implementation Reg. No. CZ.02.2.69/0.0/0.0/19_073/0016713.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Asian Studies, Faculty of Arts, Palacký University Olomouc, tř. Svobody 26, 779 00, Olomouc, Czech Republic

    Kateřina Šamajová, Renata Westlake & Ondřej Kučera

  2. Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Palacký University Olomouc, 17. listopadu 1192/12, 771 46, Olomouc, Czech Republic

    Lukáš Kučera

Authors
  1. Kateřina Šamajová
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Renata Westlake
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Ondřej Kučera
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Lukáš Kučera
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kateřina Šamajová.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no competing interests. The authors have no financial or proprietary interests in any material discussed in this article.

Additional information

Communicated by J. Beneš.

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary Information

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary file1 (DOCX 1087 KB)

Supplementary file2 (XLSX 17 KB)

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Šamajová, K., Westlake, R., Kučera, O. et al. Combined archaeobotanical and linguistic evidence does not support the early domestication of Brassica rapa varieties. Veget Hist Archaeobot 33, 25–37 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00334-023-00970-w

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00334-023-00970-w

Keywords

Search

Navigation