Abstract
Resin production in wood tissues is a regular feature of pine wood species, including southern pine. High resin contents of southern pine wood may increase wood resistance against decay fungi. The current study investigated the effect of resin contents in southern pine wood on decay resistance by exposing non-extracted heartwood, mixed wood (sapwood + heartwood), and sapwood blocks with varying resin content to brown rot, Fomitopsis ostreiformis in a laboratory decay test. Matching blocks of each wood type were successively extracted in a Soxhlet using three solvents to determine resin content and were exposed to decay fungus in parallel. Results showed that mass losses in non-extracted heartwood and mixed wood depended on resin content levels, and very shallow or no mass losses were observed in blocks containing more than 31 % resin content. Sapwood experienced high mass losses, but the presence of resinous extractives significantly increased the decay resistance. All solvent-extracted blocks experienced high mass loss (53–55 %). Scanning electron microscopy showed that penetration of brown rot hyphae and cell damage depended on the resin contents of blocks. Most of the identified compounds through GC-MS belonged to oleoresins, among which monoterpene hydrocarbons, oxygenated monoterpenoids, and sesquiterpenes were more abundant in heartwood than sapwood.
Funding source: Forest and Wood Products Australia
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge former and current directors of the National Centre for Timber Durability and Design Life for their advice and contribution to this study. Special thanks are extended to Ms. Rica Minett, Mr. Paul Chan, and other technical staff of Salisbury Research Facility (SRF) for their help in sample preparation. Resources made available at SRF, the Department of Agriculture and Fisheries (DAF) are highly acknowledged. The authors are very thankful to Dr. William Leggate from DAF for reviewing the draft of this manuscript. The authors thank the anonymous referees for their helpful comments that improved the quality of the manuscript.
-
Research ethics: Not applicable. The manuscript has not been published previously and is not under consideration for publication elsewhere.
-
Author contributions: BH, LF and MS conceived and planned the experiments, BH and LF carried out decay tests. RAH and BH carried out GC-MS analysis, MS carried out SEM analysis, BH wrote the original manuscript, RAH revised and edited the manuscript. BH and MS supervised the project. The authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission to this journal.
-
Competing interests: The authors state no conflict of interest.
-
Research funding: The research was supported by Forest and Wood Products Australia, the University of the Sunshine Coast and DAF through the National Centre for Timber Durability and Design Life (DAF Project 5) which is highly acknowledged.
-
Data availability: The raw data can be obtained on reasonable request from the corresponding author.
References
Ahmed, S.A., Sehlstedt-Persson, M., Karlsson, O., and Morén, T. (2012). Uneven distribution of preservative in kiln-dried sapwood lumber of Scots pine: impact of wood structure and resin allocation. Holzforschung 66: 251–258, https://doi.org/10.1515/hf.2011.126.Search in Google Scholar
Ainsworth, G. and Sussman, A.S. (1965). The fungi. An advanced treatise. Vol. I. The fungal cell. Academic Press, London.Search in Google Scholar
Amburgey, T., Carter, F.L., and Roberts, D.R. (1978). Resistance of wood from paraquat-treated southern pine trees to termites and the fungus Gloeophyllum trabeum. Wood Sci. Technol. 10: 187–192.Search in Google Scholar
Arantes, V. and Goodell, B. (2014). Current understanding of brown-rot fungal biodegradation mechanisms: a review. In: Schultz, T.P., Goodell, B., and Nicholas, D.D. (Eds.), Deterioration and protection of sustainable biomaterials. American Chemical Society, ACS Symposium Series, USA, pp. 3–21.10.1021/bk-2014-1158.ch001Search in Google Scholar
ASTM (2021). D1105-96—standard test method for preparation of extractive-free wood. American Society for Testing Materials, Pennsylvania, USA.Search in Google Scholar
AWPC (2015). Laboratory. Decay hazard class H3, H4 and H5. In: Protocols for assessment of wood preservatives. Australasian Wood Preservation Committee, September 2015 Revision, Rotorua, pp. 19–20.Search in Google Scholar
Back, E.L. and Allen, L.H. (2000). Pitch control, wood resin and deresination. Tappi Press, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.Search in Google Scholar
Bailleres, H., Lee, D.J., Kumar, C., Psaltis, S., Hopewell, G., and Brancheriau, L. (2019). Improving returns from southern pine plantations through innovative resource characterisation. Technical Report, Queensland Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Australia, pp. 1–170.Search in Google Scholar
Beal, R.H., Amburgey, T., Bultman, J.D., and Robert, D.R. (1979). Resistance of wood from paraquat-treated southern pines to subterranean termites, decay fungi, and marine borers. For. Prod. J. 29: 35–38.Search in Google Scholar
Belt, T., Hänninen, T., and Rautkari, L. (2017). Antioxidant activity of Scots pine heartwood and knot extractives and implications for resistance to brown rot. Holzforschung 71: 527–534, https://doi.org/10.1515/hf-2016-0232.Search in Google Scholar
Belt, T., Altgen, M., Mäkelä, M., Hänninen, T., and Rautkari, L. (2019). Cellular level chemical changes in Scots pine heartwood during incipient brown rot decay. Sci. Rep. 9: 5188, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-41735-8.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
Belt, T., Harju, A., Kilpeläinen, P., and Venäläinen, M. (2022). Fungal degradation of extractives plays an important role in the brown rot decay of Scots pine heartwood. Front. Plant Sci. 13: 912555, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2022.912555.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
Bouwmeester, H. (2019). Dissecting the pine tree green chemical factory. J. Exp. Bot. 70: 4–6, https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/ery407.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
Brischke, C. and Alfredsen, G. (2022). Biological durability of pine wood. Wood Mater. Sci. Eng. 18: 1050–1064, https://doi.org/10.1080/17480272.2022.2104134.Search in Google Scholar
Can, A. and Hazer, B. (2022). Improvement of dimensional stability, water resistance, and decay resistance of pine wood by the incorporation of polyvinyl chloride-abietic acid copolymer with AgNPs. Environ. Sci. Proc. 22: 22.10.3390/IECF2022-13036Search in Google Scholar
Chang, S.-T., Wang, S.-Y., Wu, C.-L., Chen, P.-F., and Kuo, Y.-H. (2000). Comparison of the antifungal activity of cadinane skeletal sesquiterpenoids from Taiwania (Taiwania cryptomerioides Hayata) heartwood. Holzforschung 54: 241–245, https://doi.org/10.1515/hf.2000.041.Search in Google Scholar
Cherry, R., Karunasena, W., and Manalo, A. (2022). Mechanical properties of low-stiffness out-of-grade hybrid pine – effects of knots, resin and pith. Forests 13: 927, https://doi.org/10.3390/f13060927.Search in Google Scholar
Choong, E.T. (1969). Effect of extractives on shrinkage and other hygroscopic properties of ten southern pine woods. Wood Fiber Sci. 1: 124–133.Search in Google Scholar
Clarke, K. and Gorley, R. (2015). PRIMER v7: user manual/tutorial. PRIMER-E: Plymouth, Plymouth Marine Laboratory, Devon, UK, p. 20.Search in Google Scholar
Cown, D.J., Donaldson, L.A., and Downes, G.M. (2011). A review of resin features in radiata pine. N. Z. J. For. Sci. 41: 41–60.Search in Google Scholar
Croteau, R. and Johnson, M.A. (1985). Biosynthesis of terpenoid wood extractives. In: Higuchi, T. (Ed.). Biosynthesis and biodegradation of wood components. Academic Press, Orlando, FL, USA, pp. 379–439.10.1016/B978-0-12-347880-1.50019-2Search in Google Scholar
Dahlen, J., Nicholas, D.D., and Schultz, T.P. (2008). Water repellency and dimensional stability of southern pine decking treated with waterborne resin acids. J. Wood Chem. Technol. 28: 47–54, https://doi.org/10.1080/02773810801916472.Search in Google Scholar
De Angelis, M., Romagnoli, M., Vek, V., Poljanšek, I., Oven, P., Thaler, N., Lesar, B., Kržišnik, D., and Humar, M. (2018). Chemical composition and resistance of Italian stone pine (Pinus pinea L.) wood against fungal decay and wetting. Ind. Crops Prod. 117: 187–196, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2018.03.016.Search in Google Scholar
De Groot, R. (1972). Growth of wood-inhabiting fungi in saturated atmospheres of monoterpenoids. Mycologia 64: 863–870, https://doi.org/10.2307/3757941.Search in Google Scholar
Dorado, J., Van Beek, T., Claassen, F., and Sierra-Alvarez, R. (2001). Degradation of lipophilic wood extractive constituents in Pinus sylvestris by the white-rot fungi Bjerkandera sp. and Trametes versicolor. Wood Sci. Technol. 35: 117–125, https://doi.org/10.1007/s002260000077.Search in Google Scholar
Eberhardt, T.L., Han, J.S., Micales, J.A., and Young, R.A. (1994). Decay resistance in conifer seed cones: role of resin acids as inhibitors of decomposition by white-rot fungi. Holzforschung 48: 278–284, https://doi.org/10.1515/hfsg.1994.48.4.278.Search in Google Scholar
Eller, F., Clausen, C.A., Green, F., and Taylor, S. (2010). Critical fluid extraction of Juniperus virginiana L. and bioactivity of extracts against subterranean termites and wood-rot fungi. Ind. Crops Prod. 32: 481–485, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2010.06.018.Search in Google Scholar
Eslyn, W.E. and Wolter, K.E. (1981). Decay resistance of red pine wood chips enriched with oleoresin. Phytopathology 71: 1248–1251.10.1094/Phyto-71-521Search in Google Scholar
Fäldt, J. (2000). Volatile constituents in conifers and conifer related wood-decaying fungi. Biotic influences on monoterpene compositions in pines. Department of Chemistry, KTH – Sveriges största tekniska universitet Stockholm, Sweden, pp. 56.Search in Google Scholar
Feist, W.C. (1990). Weathering performance of painted wood pretreated with water-repellent preservatives. For. Prod. J. 40: 21–26.Search in Google Scholar
Flodin, K. and Fries, N. (1978). Studies on volatile compounds from Pinus silvestris and their effect on wood‐decomposing fungi: II. Effects of some volatile compounds on fungal growth. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 8: 300–310, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0329.1978.tb00643.x.Search in Google Scholar
Francis, L., Semple, K., Hassan, B., and Morrell, J. (2023). Natural durability indicators in young plantation and native forest regrowth Gympie messmate (Eucalyptus cloeziana). Holzforschung 77: 846–854, https://doi.org/10.1515/hf-2023-0057.Search in Google Scholar
Gref, R., Håkansson, C., Henningsson, B., and Hemming, J. (1999). Influence of wood extractives on brown and white rot decay in Scots pine heart-, light-and sapwood. Mater. Org. 33: 119–128.Search in Google Scholar
Harju, A.M., Kainulainen, P., Venäläinen, M., Tiitta, M., and Viitanen, H. (2002). Differences in resin acid concentration between brown-rot resistant and susceptible Scots pine heartwood. Holzforschung 56: 479–486, https://doi.org/10.1515/hf.2002.074.Search in Google Scholar
Hart, J. (1975). Formation of oleoresin and lignans in sapwood of white spruce in response to wounding. Phytopathology 65: 412–417.Search in Google Scholar
Hart, J. (1989). The role of wood exudates and extractives in protecting wood from decay. In: Natural products of woody plants: chemicals extraneous to the lignocellulosic cell wall. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, Germany, pp. 861–880.10.1007/978-3-642-74075-6_22Search in Google Scholar
Hart, J.H. and Shrimpton, D. (1979). Role of stilbenes in resistance of wood to decay. Phytopathology 69: 1138–1143, https://doi.org/10.1094/phyto-69-1138.Search in Google Scholar
Hassan, B., Sohail, A., Muhammad, M.-u.-H., Mankowski, M., and Nasir, M. (2016). VII International Scientific Agriculture Symposium, “Agrosym 2016”, 6–9 October 2016. Antitermitic activities of Pinus roxburghii wood extractives against Heterotermes indicola (Wasmann)(Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Agrosym 2016 held in Bosnia and Herzegovina, University of East Sarajevo, Faculty of Agriculture.Search in Google Scholar
Hassan, B., Mankowski, M.E., Kirker, G., Ahmed, S., and Bishell, A. (2019). Ex-situ performance of extracts from naturally durable heartwood species and their potential as wood preservatives. Eur. J. Wood Wood Prod. 77: 869–878, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00107-019-01443-6.Search in Google Scholar
Hassan, B., Ahmed, S., Kirker, G., Mankowski, M.E., and Misbah ul Haq, M. (2020). Synergistic effect of heartwood extracts in combination with linseed oil as wood preservatives against subterranean termite Heterotermes indicola (Blattodea: Rhinotermitidae). Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 27: 3076–3085, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-07202-7.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
Kamaluddin, N.N., Matsuyama, S., and Nakagawa-Izumi, A. (2017). Feeding deterrence to Reticulitermes speratus (Kolbe) by Fibroporia radiculosa (Peck) Parmasto 1968. Insects 8: 29, https://doi.org/10.3390/insects8010029.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
Keith, C. (1969). Resin content of red pine wood and its effect on specific gravity determinations. For. Chron. 45: 338–343, https://doi.org/10.5558/tfc45338-5.Search in Google Scholar
Kirker, G., Blodgett, A., Arango, R., Lebow, P., and Clausen, C. (2013). The role of extractives in naturally durable wood species. Int. Biodeterior. Biodegrad. 82: 53–58, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibiod.2013.03.007.Search in Google Scholar
Koch, P. (1972). Utilization of the southern pines. Agriculture Handbook no. 420. US Department of Agriculture and Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station, USA.Search in Google Scholar
Kumar, C., Faircloth, A., Leggate, W., and Redman, A. (2022). Impact of continuous drying method on drying quality of southern pine sawn timber. BioResources 17: 574–591, https://doi.org/10.15376/biores.17.1.574-591.Search in Google Scholar
Leggate, W., Redman, A., Wood, J., Bailleres, H., and Lee, D.J. (2019). Radial permeability of the hybrid pine (Pinus elliottii × Pinus caribaea) in Australia. BioResources 14: 4358–4372, https://doi.org/10.15376/biores.14.2.4358-4372.Search in Google Scholar
Leggate, W., Shirmohammadi, M., McGavin, R.L., Chandra, K.A., Knackstedt, M., Knuefing, L., and Turner, M. (2020). Influence of wood’s anatomical and resin traits on the radial permeability of the hybrid pine (Pinus elliottii× Pinus caribaea) wood in Australia. BioResources 15: 6851–6873, https://doi.org/10.15376/biores.15.3.6851-6873.Search in Google Scholar
Leggate, W., Kumar, C., McGavin, R.L., Faircloth, A., and Knackstedt, M. (2021). The Effects of drying method on the wood permeability, wettability, treatability, and gluability of southern pine from Australia. BioResources 16: 698–720, https://doi.org/10.15376/biores.16.1.698-720.Search in Google Scholar
Li, J., Li, S.Y., Li, S.J., Wang, J., and Liu, D. (2010). Synthesis of a rosin amide and its inhibition of wood decay fungi. Adv. Mater. Res. 113: 2232–2236, https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.113-116.2232.Search in Google Scholar
Liu, Y., Wang, D., Hu, S., Wu, J., Luo, J., Cao, M., and Yan, X. (2023). Antifungal activity of cadinane‐type Sssquiterpenes from Eupatorium adenophorum against wood‐decaying fungi. Chem. Biodiversity 20: e202300879, https://doi.org/10.1002/cbdv.202300879.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
López-Álvarez, Ó., Zas, R., and Marey-Perez, M. (2023). Resin tapping: a review of the main factors modulating pine resin yield. Ind. Crops Prod. 202: 117105, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2023.117105.Search in Google Scholar
Lu, J., Venäläinen, M., Julkunen-Tiitto, R., and Harju, A.M. (2016). Stilbene impregnation retards brown-rot decay of Scots pine sapwood. Holzforschung 70: 261–266, https://doi.org/10.1515/hf-2014-0251.Search in Google Scholar
Maldas, D.C. and Kamdem, D.P. (1999). Wettability of extracted southern pine. For. Prod. J. 49: 91–93.Search in Google Scholar
Mankowski, M., Bishell, A.B., and Kirker, G.T. (2016). Laboratory evaluations of woods from Pakistan and their extractives against Postia placenta and Trametes versicolor. In: 47th international research group on wood protection, document number IRG/WP 16-10860. International Research Group on Wood Protection, Portugal.Search in Google Scholar
Martínez-Iñigo, M.J., Immerzeel, P., Gutierrez, A., Rio, J.d., and Sierra-Alvarez, R. (1999). Biodegradability of extractives in sapwood and heartwood from Scots pine by sapstain and white-rot fungi. Holzforschung 53: 247–252, https://doi.org/10.1515/hf.1999.042.Search in Google Scholar
Matsumura, J., Booker, R.E., Ridoutt, B.G., Donaldson, L.A., Mikajiri, N., Matsunaga, H., and Oda, K. (1999). Impregnation of radiata pine wood by vacuum treatment II: effect of pre-steaming on wood structure and resin content. J. Wood Sci. 45: 456–462, https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00538953.Search in Google Scholar
Micales, J., Han, J., Davis, J., and Young, R. (1994). Chemical composition and fungitoxic activities of pine cone extractives. In: Proceedings of 4th meeting of the Pan American Biodeterioration Society. Plenum Press, NY, USA.10.1007/978-1-4757-9450-2_25Search in Google Scholar
Morikawa, T., Ashitani, T., Sekine, N., Kusumoto, N., and Takahashi, K. (2012). Bioactivities of extracts from Chamaecyparis obtusa branch heartwood. J. Wood Sci. 58: 544–549, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10086-012-1280-8.Search in Google Scholar
Mun, S.P. and Prewitt, L. (2011). Antifungal activity of organic extracts from Juniperus virginiana heartwood against wood decay fungi. For. Prod. J. 61: 443–449, https://doi.org/10.13073/0015-7473-61.6.443.Search in Google Scholar
Nakayama, F., Vinyard, S., Chow, P., Bajwa, D., Youngquist, J., Muehl, J., and Krzysik, A. (2001). Guayule as a wood preservative. Ind. Crops Prod. 14: 105–111, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0926-6690(00)00093-5.Search in Google Scholar
Nemli, G., Gezer, E.D., Yıldız, S., Temiz, A., and Aydın, A. (2006). Evaluation of the mechanical, physical properties and decay resistance of particleboard made from particles impregnated with Pinus brutia bark extractives. Bioresour. Technol. 97: 2059–2064, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2005.09.013.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
Nerg, A.-M., Heijari, J., Noldt, U., Viitanen, H., Vuorinen, M., Kainulainen, P., and Holopainen, J. (2004). Significance of wood terpenoids in the resistance of Scots pine provenances against the old house borer, Hylotrupes bajulus, and brown-rot fungus, Coniophora puteana. J. Chem. Ecol. 30: 125–141, https://doi.org/10.1023/b:joec.0000013186.75496.68.10.1023/B:JOEC.0000013186.75496.68Search in Google Scholar
Nicholas, D., Schultz, T., Sites, L., and Buckner, D. (2005). Effect of permeability and extractives on the decay rate of southern pine sapwood in above ground exposure. In: 36th annual conference of international research group on wood protection, document no. IRG/WP 05-20310, Bangalore, India, pp. 1–8.Search in Google Scholar
Olaniran, S.O., Löning, S., Buschalsky, A., and Militz, H. (2022). Impregnation properties of Nigerian-grown Gmelina arborea Roxb. wood. Forests 13: 2036, https://doi.org/10.3390/f13122036.Search in Google Scholar
Pallardy, S.G. (2008). Lipids, terpenes, and related substances. In: Pallardy, S.G. (Ed.). Physiology of woody plants. Elsevier, USA, pp. 217–232.10.1016/B978-012088765-1.50009-9Search in Google Scholar
Passialis, C., Voulgaridis, E., and Grigoriou, A. (1995). Utilization of oleoresin and bark extractives from Pinus halepensis Mill. in wood products. Forêt Méditerranéenne 16: 19–27.Search in Google Scholar
Peterson, M. and Thomas, R. (1978). Protection of wood from decay fungi by acetylation: an ultrastructural and chemical study. Wood Fiber Sci. 10: 149–163.Search in Google Scholar
Prior, C. (1976). Resistance by Corsican pine to attack by Heterobasidion annosum. Ann. Bot. 40: 261–279, https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.aob.a085128.Search in Google Scholar
Saranpää, P. and Nyberg, H. (1987). Seasonal variation of neutral lipids in Pinus sylvestris L. sapwood and heartwood. Trees 1: 139–144, https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00193556.Search in Google Scholar
Schuck, H. (1982). Monoterpenes and resistance of conifers to fungi. In: Stephan, B.R., and Weissenberg, K. (Eds.), Resistance to diseases and pests in forest trees. PU DOC, Netherlands, pp. 169–175.10.1111/j.1439-0329.1982.tb01391.xSearch in Google Scholar
Schultz, T.P., Nicholas, D.D., and Ingram, L.L.Jr (2007a). Laboratory and outdoor water repellency and dimensional stability of southern pine sapwood treated with a waterborne water repellent made from resin acids. Holzforschung 61: 317–322, https://doi.org/10.1515/hf.2007.044.Search in Google Scholar
Schultz, T.P., Nicholas, D.D., and Shi, J. (2007b). Water repellency and dimensional stability of wood treated with waterborne resin acids/tor. In: 38th annual meeting of interntional Research Group on wood protection, document no.IRG/WP 07-40364. Wyoming USA.Search in Google Scholar
Shain, L. (1995). Stem defense against pathogens. In: Gartner, B.L. (Ed.). Plant stems, physiology and functional morphology. Elsevier, USA, pp. 383–406.10.1016/B978-012276460-8/50019-9Search in Google Scholar
Singh, T. and Singh, A.P. (2012). A review on natural products as wood protectant. Wood Sci. Technol. 46: 851–870, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00226-011-0448-5.Search in Google Scholar
Sivrikaya, H., Can, A., Yaman, B., Palanti, S., and Morrell, J.J. (2021). Effect of tallow impregnation on moisture behavior and decay resistance of various wood species. Wood Mater. Sci. Eng. 16: 260–268, https://doi.org/10.1080/17480272.2020.1862298.Search in Google Scholar
Standards Australia (2022). Timber – natural durability ratings. Standards Australia Limited (AS 5604:2022).Search in Google Scholar
Su, Y.-C. and Ho, C.-L. (2017). Composition, in vitro cytotoxicity, anti-mildew and anti-wood-decay fungal activities of the fruit essential oil of Liquidambar formosana from Taiwan. Nat. Prod. Commun. 12: 287–290, https://doi.org/10.1177/1934578x1701200237.Search in Google Scholar
Turtola, S., Manninen, A.M., Holopainen, J., Levula, T., Raitio, H., and Kainulainen, P. (2002). Secondary metabolite concentrations and terpene emissions of Scots pine xylem after long‐term forest fertilization. J. Environ. Qual. 31: 1694–1701, https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2002.1694.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
Venäläinen, M., Harju, A.M., Kainulainen, P., Viitanen, H., and Nikulainen, H. (2003). Variation in the decay resistance and its relationship with other wood characteristics in old Scots pines. Ann. For. Sci. 60: 409–417, https://doi.org/10.1051/forest:2003033.10.1051/forest:2003033Search in Google Scholar
Venäläinen, M., Harju, A.M., Saranpää, P., Kainulainen, P., Tiitta, M., and Velling, P. (2004). The concentration of phenolics in brown-rot decay resistant and susceptible Scots pine heartwood. Wood Sci. Technol. 38: 109–118, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00226-004-0226-8.Search in Google Scholar
Watt, M.S., Kimberley, M.O., Downes, G.M., Bruce, J., Jones, T., Ottenschlaeger, M., Brownlie, R., Xue, J., Leckie, A.C., and Smaill, S.J. (2011). Characterisation of within-tree and within-ring resin-pocket density in Pinus radiata across an environmental range in New Zealand. N. Z. J. For. Sci. 41: 141–150.Search in Google Scholar
Williams, F.C. and Hale, M. (2003). The resistance of wood chemically modified with isocyanates: the role of moisture content in decay suppression. Int. Biodeterior. Biodegrad. 52: 215–221, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0964-8305(03)00070-2.Search in Google Scholar
Williams, R.S. and Willaim, C.F. (1999). Water repellents and water-repellent preservatives for wood. General Technical Report FPL–GTR–109. United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Products Laboratory.10.2737/FPL-GTR-109Search in Google Scholar
Wu, C.-C., Huang, S.-L., Ko, C.-H., and Chang, H.-T. (2022). Antifungal sesquiterpenoids from Michelia formosana leaf essential oil against wood-rotting fungi. Molecules 27: 2136, https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27072136.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
Wu, C.-L., Chien, S.-C., Wang, S.-Y., Kuo, Y.-H., and Chang, S.-T. (2005). Structure-activity relationships of cadinane-type sesquiterpene derivatives against wood-decay fungi. Holzforschung 59: 620–627, https://doi.org/10.1515/hf.2005.100.Search in Google Scholar
Xu, K., Feng, J., Zhong, T., Zheng, Z., and Chen, T. (2015). Effects of volatile chemical components of wood species on mould growth susceptibility and termite attack resistance of wood plastic composites. Int. Biodeterior. Biodegrad. 100: 106–115, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibiod.2015.02.002.Search in Google Scholar
Yamada, T. (1992). Biochemistry of gymnosperm xylem responses to fungal invasion. In: Blanchette, R.A. and Biggs, A.R. (Eds.), Defense mechanisms of woody plants against fungi. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp. 147–164.10.1007/978-3-662-01642-8_8Search in Google Scholar
Yi, M., Jia, T., Dong, L., Zhang, L., Leng, C., Liu, S., and Lai, M. (2021). Resin yield in Pinus elliottii Engelm is related to the resin flow rate, resin components and resin duct characteristics at three locations in southern China. Ind. Crops Prod. 160: 113141, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2020.113141.Search in Google Scholar
Zabel, R.A. and Morrell, J.J. (2020). Wood microbiology: decay and its prevention. Academic Press Inc., San Diego.Search in Google Scholar
Zhang, Z., Yang, T., Mi, N., Wang, Y., Li, G., Wang, L., and Xie, Y. (2016). Antifungal activity of monoterpenes against wood white-rot fungi. Int. Biodeterior. Biodegrad. 106: 157–160, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibiod.2015.10.018.Search in Google Scholar
© 2024 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston
