Abstract
The concept of human values is central to the study of culture, ethics, politics, anthropology, sociology, social psychology, environmental studies, health policy, education, management, and human capital. Because it represents the ultimate “why” behind decisions and behaviors, as a concept it plays an outsized role in both theory and practice in each of these fields. Despite the centrality of human values in these domains, the concept lacks theoretical consensus among scholars and practitioners. Like the concepts of subjective well-being, organizational culture, employee engagement, and leadership, the values literature suffers from concept proliferation and cries out for clearly stated definitions that embed the concept within a solid theoretical framework. In this article, we advocate for a fundamental reconsideration of the concept of values, anchoring it within a new psychological theory of human motivation based on first principles. Our primary contribution lies in demonstrating that the operational definitions utilized by academics and practitioners alike can be thought of as attempts to approach concepts of human motivation, specifically, emotional needs, without fully getting there. We review the leading definitions of human values in the literature, concluding that they can be distilled to a fundamental set of human emotional needs, each associated with extensive literatures of their own. We introduce a comprehensive framework of 12 human emotional needs and argue that a comprehensive motivational framework offers significant advantages over current theoretical approaches, which tend to spin off an ever-expanding list of concepts. We consider the impact of embedding values concepts within existing motivational constructs with clear benefits for: (a) theory development, (b) method development, and (c) practical applications, emphasizing the advantages of clear operational definitions.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article (and its supplementary information files). Original source materials are available from the author by request.
Notes
Major contributions to this alternative perspective include Jaan Valsiner’s systemic approach to values focusing on individuals as active agents in their own development within cultural contexts; Svend Brinkmann's focus on navigating moral landscapes in the context of lived experience and cultural practices; Angelo Branco's focus on the interaction between individual psychological processes and cultural values in developing emotion processes; Michael Cole's cultural-historical approach, emphasizing the role of cultural tools and artifacts in shaping patterns of thought and values; and Richard Shweder's anthropological approach to moral psychology, which emphasizes understanding values within their specific cultural and historical contexts. Other notable contributors to this approach to values include Elena Paolicchi, Patricia Greenfield, and Joseph Henrich.
Hitlin & Piliavin (2004) argue that values are not equivalent to needs because “needs connote biological influence” (p. 361). We argue that needs exist at many different levels beginning with the biological needs of homeostasis and extending upwards to ever more abstract emotional needs for states like self-actualization, material success, social recognition, and a transcendent life purpose. In this way, values are synonymous with emotional needs. Schwartz (1992) makes this point explicitly by defining values as representations of biological needs, social coordination needs, and group survival and welfare needs.
These Rokeach quotes demonstrate the dominant bias in the 1960s through 1980s toward cognition (as opposed to affect) as the central modality of interest in psychological theory. Then, values tended to be thought of as “cognitive representations” or “conceptualizations” of needs and desires, effectively bypassing their affective nature. By the 1990s, needs, strivings, and desires, and their representations as values, came to be seen as primarily affective courtesy of the emotion revolution that accompanied the “Decade of the Brain,” and newfound interest in the study of affective neuroscience, emotional intelligence, and behavioral economics. We return to the question of cognitive bias in values theory and research in the Discussion section (Implications for Methods).
Aristotle (350 BC/1933) proposed the three-tiered model of states of existence: potentiality (having potential), potentiality-as-such (action that transforms latent potential), and actuality (the end result). Aristotle’s famous example is a pile of lumber. The lumber could be used to construct a house, or used to build some other structure, e.g., a shed; the lumber is in a state of potentiality, or "the buildable." The transformational action of building a house is the intermediate step in this process, potentiality-as-such. When the house is completed, the lumber is now in a state of actualization.
As early as his seminal paper, Maslow (1943) explained that although there is a general trend in the hierarchy of needs, this progression is not absolute and can be fluid. He recognized that for some individuals or in certain situations, higher needs may be pursued even if lower needs remain unfulfilled. We concur with a perspective that is sensitive to the complexity, variability, and context-dependence of human motivation and behavior.
Regarding any discrete need, we can be motivated to achieve more of the good or less of the bad, both, or neither. In general, promotion and prevention energies tend to behave in a complementary manner.
There is no conflict between the proposed theoretical model and the systemic social process tradition. Despite the social psychological literature’s position that values must be enduring, our position is that values are highly susceptible to social influence and are as changeable and dynamic as our needs because, ultimately, this is what they are. If this were not the case, indoctrination would not be possible; unfortunately, in many cases, indoctrination into destructive values is all too easy. For a detailed discussion of the ontogeny of values as the result of interplay between individual psychology and social environments across the lifespan see Valsiner (1998).
References
Allport, G. W., & Vernon, P. E. (1931). A test for personal values. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 26, 231–248.
Allport, G. W., Vernon, P. E., & Lindzey, G. (1960). Study of values. Manual and test booklet (3rd ed.). Houghton Mifflin.
Alwin, D. F., & Krosnick, J. A. (1985). The measurement of values in surveys: A comparison of ratings and rankings. Public Opinion Quarterly, 49(4), 535–552.
Aristotle. (1933). Metaphysics. Harvard University Press.
Bernard, M., Maio, G., & Olson, J. (2003). Effects of introspection about reasons for values: Extending research on values-as-truisms. Social Cognition, 21, 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.21.1.1.21193
Bilsky, W., Janik, M., & Schwartz, S. (2011). The structural organization of human values-evidence from three rounds of the European social survey (ESS). Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022110362757
Brewer, M. B. & Roccas, S. (2001). Individual values, social identity, and optimal distinctiveness. In C. Sedikides & M. B. Brewer (Eds.), Individual Self, Relational Self, Collective Self (pp. 219–37). Taylor & Francis/Psychology, eBook.
Chan, K. M. A., Guerry, A. D., Balvanera, P., Klain, S., Satterfield, T., Basurto, X., & Woodside, U. (2012). Where are cultural and social in ecosystem services? A framework for constructive engagement. BioScience, 62(8), 744–756.
Coelho, G., Hanel, P., Johansen, M., Maio, G., & Back, M. (2019). Mapping the Structure of Human Values through Conceptual Representations. European Journal of Personality, 33, 34–51. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2170
Chirkov, V., Ryan, R. M., Kim, Y., & Kaplan, U. (2003). Differentiating autonomy from individualism and independence: A self-determination theory perspective on internalization of cultural orientations and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(1), 97.
Davidov, E., Schmidt, P., & Schwartz, S. H. (2008). Bringing values back in: The adequacy of the European Social Survey to measure values in 20 countries. Public Opinion Quarterly, 72(3), 420–445.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01
Diener, E., Oishi, S., & Lucas, R. (2009). Subjective well-being: The science of happiness and life satisfaction. In S. J. Lopez & C. R. Snyder (Eds.), The oxford handbook of positive psychology (2nd ed., pp. 187–206). https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195187243.013.0031
Diener, E., & Seligman, M. E. (2004). Beyond money: Toward an economy of well-being. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 5(1), 1–31.
Dinh, J. E., Lord, R. G., Hall, R. J., Hannah, S. T., Leavitt, K., Shondrick, S. J., & Usher Perez, A. L. (2012). Implicit and explicit values as a predictor of ethical decision-making and ethical behavior. In Proceedings of the New Frontiers in Management and Organizational Cognition Conference. National University of Ireland Maynooth. https://eprints.maynoothuniversity.ie/4052/1/JD_Implicit_values.pdf. Accessed 8/8/2023.
Durkheim, E. (1897). Suicide, a study in sociology (1951 Edition, J. A. Spaulding, & G. Simpson, Trans.).
Elder-Vass, D. (2019). Realism, values and critique. Journal of Critical Realism, 18, 314–318. https://doi.org/10.1080/14767430.2019.1614744
Epstein, S. (1989). Values from the perspective of cognitive-experiential self-theory (pp. 3–22). Social and moral values: Individual and societal perspectives.
Feather, N. T. (1995). Values, valences, and choice: The influences of values on the perceived attractiveness and choice of alternatives. Journal of personality and social psychology, 68(6), 1135. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.68.6.1135
Feldman-Stewart, D., Tong, C., Siemens, R., Alibhai, S., Pickles, T., Robinson, J., & Brundage, M. (2012). The Impact of Explicit Values Clarification Exercises in a Patient Decision Aid Emerges After the Decision Is Actually Made. Medical Decision Making, 32, 616–626. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272989X11434601
Freitas, J., Cikara, M., Grossmann, I., & Schlegel, R. (2017). Origins of the Belief in Good True Selves. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 21, 634–636. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2017.05.009
Gouveia V. V. (2019). Human values: contributions from a functional perspective. In S. H. Koller (Ed.), Psychology in Brazil: Scientists Make a Difference (pp. 67–81). Cham, Switz.: Springer. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-11336-0_5
Gouveia, V. V., Milfont, T. L., & Guerra, V. M. (2013). Functional theory of human values: Testing its content and structure hypotheses. Personality and Individual Differences, 60, 41–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2013.12.012
Grouzet, F. M., Kasser, T., Ahuvia, A., Dols, J. M., Kim, Y., Lau, S., Ryan, R. M., Saunders, S., & Schmuck, P. (2005). The structure of goal contents across 15 cultures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89(5), 800–816. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.89.5.800
Haidt, J., Graham, J., & Joseph, C. (2009). Above and below left–right: Ideological narratives and moral foundations. Psychological Inquiry, 20(2–3), 110–119. https://doi.org/10.1080/10478400903028573
Hartman, R. S. (1973). The Hartman value profile (HVP): Manual of interpretation. Muskegon, MI: Research Concepts.
Haslam, N., Bain, P., Douge, L., Lee, M., & Bastian, B. (2005). More human than you: Attributing humanness to self and others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89(6), 937.
Hechter, M. (1993). Values research in the social and behavioral sciences. In M. Hechter, L. Nadel & R. E. Michod (Eds.), The Origin of Values. Aldine de Gruyter, pp 1–28.
Hitlin, S. (2003). Values as the core of personal identity: Drawing links between two theories of self. Social Psychology Quarterly, pp. 118–137. https://doi.org/10.2307/1519843
Hitlin, S., & Piliavin, J. A. (2004). Values: Reviving a dormant concept. Annual Review of Sociology, 30, 359–393. http://kodu.ut.ee/~cect/teoreetiline%20seminar%2023.04.2013/Hitlin%20&%20Piliavin%202004.pdf. Accessed 15 Aug 2023
Hofstede, G. (1984). Culture’s consequences: International differences in work-related values. Sage Publications.
Hofstede, G. (2011). Dimensionalizing cultures: The Hofstede model in context. Online readings in psychology and culture, 2(1), 8. https://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/orpc/vol2/iss1/8/?&ei=9owuVLrgCIfXaqzngIgJ&sa=U. Accessed 22 Aug 2023
Hofstede, G., & Minkov, M. (2013). VSM 2013. Values survey module. https://geerthofstede.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Manual-VSM-2013.pdf. Accessed 22 Aug 2023
Inglehart, R. (1990/2018). Culture shift in advanced industrial society. Princeton University Press.
Inglehart, R., & Abramson, P. R. (1999). Measuring postmaterialism. American Political Science Review, 93(3), 665–677. https://doi.org/10.2307/2585581
Inglehart, R., & Baker, W. E. (2000). Modernization, cultural change, and the persistence of traditional values. American sociological review, 19–51. https://doi.org/10.2307/2657288
Inglehart, R., & Welzel, C. (2005). Modernization, cultural change, and democracy: The human development sequence. Cambridge University Press. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Christian-Welzel-2/publication/272159786_Modernization_Cultural_Change_and_Democracy_The_Human_Development_Sequence/links/58105f2f08aef2ef97b07f88/Modernization-Cultural-Change-and-Democracy-The-Human-Development-Sequence
Jolibert, A., & Baumgartner, G. (1997). Values, Motivations, and Personal Goals: Revisited. Psychology & Marketing, 14, 675–688. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1520-6793(199710)14:7%3c675::AID-MAR3%3e3.0.CO;2-D
Karp, D. R. (2000). Values theory and research. Encyclopedia of Sociology, 5, 3212–3227.
Kasser, T. (2002). The high price of materialism. MIT press.
Kirkman, B. L., & Shapiro, D. L. (2001). The impact of cultural values on job satisfaction and organizational commitment in self-managing work teams: The mediating role of employee resistance. Academy of Management Journal, 44(3), 557–569. https://doi.org/10.5465/3069370
Kitayama, S., Markus, H. R., & Kurokawa, M. (2000). Culture, emotion, and well-being: Good feelings in Japan and the United States. Cognition & Emotion, 14(1), 93–124.
Kitayama, S., & Markus, H. R. (2000). The pursuit of happiness and the realization of sympathy: Cultural patterns of self, social relations, and well-being. Culture and Subjective Well-Being, 1, 113–161.
Kluckhohn, C. (1951). Values and value-orientations in the theory of action: An exploration in definition and classification. In Toward a general theory of action (pp. 388–433). Harvard university press. https://doi.org/10.4159/harvard.9780674863507.c8
Knoppen, D., & Saris, W. (2009). Do we have to combine Values in the Schwartz' Human Values Scale? A Comment on the Davidov Studies. Survey research methods, 3, 91–103. https://doi.org/10.18148/SRM/2009.V3I2.2601.
Kohlberg, L., & Power, C. (1981). Moral development, religious thinking, and the question of a seventh stage. The philosophy of moral developmentIn L. Kohlberg (Ed.), Essays on moral development (Vol. one, pp. 311–372). Harper & Row.
Kopelman, R. E., Rovenpor, J. L., & Guan, M. (2003). The Study of Values: Construction of the fourth edition. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 62(2), 203–220. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0001-8791(02)00047-7
Krosnick, J. A., & Alwin, D. F. (1988). A test of the form-resistant correlation hypothesis: Ratings, rankings, and the measurement of values. Public Opinion Quarterly, 52(4), 526–538.
Levontin, L., & Bardi, A. (2019). Using personal values to understand the motivational basis of amity goal orientation. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 2736. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02736
Mahoney, A., Pargament, K. I., Cole, B., Jewell, T., Magyar, G. M., Tarakeshwar, N., & Phillips, R. (2005). A higher purpose: The sanctification of strivings in a community sample. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 15(3), 239–262.
Maio, G. R. (2010). Mental representations of social values. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 42, 1–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(10)42001-8
Maio, G. R., & Olson, J. M. (1998). Values as truisms: Evidence and implications. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(2), 294. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.2.294
Maio, G. R., & Olson, J. M. (2000). What is a value-expressive attitude? In Why we evaluate: Functions of attitudes, 417–442. Erlbaum.
Marini, M. M. (2000). Social values and norms. Encyclopedia of Sociology, 4, 2828–2840.
Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98(2), 224.
Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370–396.
Maslow, A. H. (1954/1970). Motivation and personality. Harper & Row.
McDonald, P., & Gandz, J. (1991). Identification of values relevant to business research. Human Resource Management, 30, 217–236. https://doi.org/10.1002/HRM.3930300205
Meuleman, B., Davidov, E., Schmidt, P., & Billiet, J. (2012). Social location and value priorities. A European-wide comparison of the relation between socio-demographic variables and human values, 1–31. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203079812-10.
Minkov, M., & Kaasa, A. (2022). Do dimensions of culture exist objectively? A validation of the revised Minkov-Hofstede model of culture with World Values Survey items and scores for 102 countries. Journal of International Management, 28(4), 100971. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intman.2022.100971
Nelson, W., Han, P., Fagerlin, A., Stefanek, M., & Ubel, P. (2007). Rethinking the Objectives of Decision Aids: A Call for Conceptual Clarity. Medical Decision Making, 27, 609–618. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272989X07306780
Oishi, S. (2000). Goal as Cornerstones of Subjective Well-Being: Linking Individuals and Cultures. In E. Diener & E. M. Suh (Eds.), Culture and subjective well-being (pp. 87–112). MIT press. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-90-481-2352-0_2
Oishi, S., & Diener, E. (2009). Goals, culture, and subjective well-being. Culture and well-being: The collected works of Ed Diener, pp. 93–108. https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-90-481-2352-0
Parks, L., & Guay, R. (2009). Personality, values, and motivation. Personality and Individual Differences, 47, 675–684. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.PAID.2009.06.002
Parks-Leduc, L., Feldman, G., & Bardi, A. (2015). Personality Traits and Personal Values. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 19, 29–33. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868314538548
Pincus, J. D. (2004). The consequences of unmet needs: The evolving role of motivation in consumer research. Journal of Consumer Behaviour: An International Research Review, 3(4), 375–387. https://doi.org/10.1002/cb.149
Pincus, J. D. (2022a). Theoretical and empirical foundations for a unified pyramid of human motivation. Integrative Psychological and Behavioral Science. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12124-022-09700-9
Pincus, J. D. (2022b). Employee engagement as human motivation: Implications for theory, methods, and Practice. Integrative Psychological and Behavioral Science. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12124-022-09737-w
Pincus, J. D. (2023a). Well-being as need fulfillment: Implications for theory methods and practice. Integrative psychological and behavioral science. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12124-023-09758-z
Pincus, J. D. (2023b). The structure of human motivation. BMC Psychology, 11(1), 308. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-023-01346-5
Pincus, J. D. (2024a). Organizational culture as a need fulfillment system: Implications for theory, methods, and practice. Human Arenas, in press. https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-2688492/v1
Pincus, J. D. (2024b). Leadership as a determinant of need fulfillment: Implications for theory, methods, and practice. Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies, in review.
Pomeroy, L. (2005). Validating the Hartman Value Profile. In The new science of axiological psychology (pp. 39–66). Brill.
Reichel, A., Neumann, Y., & Pizam, A. (1981). The work values and motivational profiles of vocational, collegiate, nonconformist, and academic students. Research in Higher Education, 14, 187–199. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00983388
Roccas, S., Sagiv, L., Schwartz, S. H., & Knafo, A. (2002). The big five personality factors and personal values. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(6), 789–801. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167202289008
Rohan, M. J. (2000). A rose by any name? The values construct. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 4(3), 255–277. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327957PSPR0403_4
Rokeach, M. (1973). The nature of human values. Free press.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/2022_RyanDeci_SDT_Encyclopedia.pdf. Accessed 9/3/2023
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 141–166.
Sagiv, L., & Schwartz, S. H. (2000). Value priorities and subjective well-being: Direct relations and congruity effects. European Journal of Social Psychology, 30(2), 177–198.
Schlater, J., & Sontag, M. (1994). Toward the Measurement of Human Values. Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal, 23, 4–25. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077727X940231002
Schwartz, S. H. (1992). Universals in the content and structure of values: Theoretical advances and empirical tests in 20 countries. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 25, 1–65.
Schwartz, S. H. (1994). Are there universal aspects in the structure and contents of human values? Journal of Social Issues, 50(4), 19–45.
Schwartz, S. H. (2006). Basic human values: An overview. https://uranos.ch/research/references/Schwartz_2006/Schwartzpaper.pdf. Accessed 18 Aug 2023
Schwartz, S. H. (2012). An overview of the Schwartz theory of basic values. Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, 2(1), 11. https://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1116&context=orpc. Accessed 18 Aug 2023
Schwartz, S. H. (2021). A repository of Schwartz value scales with instructions and an introduction. Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, 2(2), 9. https://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/orpc/vol2/iss2/9/
Sheldon, K. M., Ryan, R. M., Deci, E. L., & Kasser, T. (2004). The independent effects of goal contents and motives on well-being: It’s both what you pursue and why you pursue it. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30(4), 475–486. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167203261883
Smith, M. B. (1968). Competence and socialization. Socialization and society. Little, Brown, & Company, pp. 270–320.
Smith, M. B. (2017). Values, self and society: Toward a humanist social psychology. Routledge.
Spranger, Eduard (1914). Types of Men. Translated by Pigors, P.J.W. New York: G. E. Stechert Company.
Stern, P. C. (2000). Toward a coherent theory of environmentally significant behavior. Journal of Social Issues, 56(3), 407–424.
Super, D. E. (1982). The relative importance of work: Models and measures for meaningful data. The Counseling Psychologist, 10(4), 95–103. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000082104018
Templier, M., & Paré, G. (2015). A framework for guiding and evaluating literature reviews. Communications of the Association for Information Systems, 37(1), 6. https://doi.org/10.17705/1CAIS.03706
Thøgersen, J. (1996). Recycling and morality: A critical review of the literature. Environment and Behavior, 28(4), 536–558.
Trainor, S. (2006). Realms of Value: Conflicting Natural Resource Values and Incommensurability. Environmental Values, 15, 3–29. https://doi.org/10.3197/096327106776678951
Tov, W., & Diener, E. (2009). Culture and subjective well-being. In Culture and well-being (pp. 9–41). Springer, Dordrecht.
Valsiner, J. (1998). The guided mind: A sociogenetic approach to personality. Harvard University Press.
Weber, M. (1905/2001). The Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism. Routledge.
Williams, R. M., Jr. (1979). Change and stability in values and value systems: A sociological perspective. Understanding Human Values, 15, 46.
Wilson, S., & Haslam, N. (2013). Humanness beliefs about behavior: An index and comparative human-nonhuman behavior judgments. Behavior Research Methods, 45, 372–382. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-012-0252-7
Woltin, K., & Bardi, A. (2018). Fitting motivational content and process: A systematic investigation of fit between value framing and self-regulation. Journal of Personality, 86(6), 973–989. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12369
Xiao, H. (1999). Independence and obedience: An analysis of child socialization values in the United States and China. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 30(4), 641–657. https://doi.org/10.3138/jcfs.30.4.641
Xiao, H. (2000). Class, gender, and parental values in the 1990s. Gender & Society, 14(6), 785–803. https://doi.org/10.1177/089124300014006005
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
J.D.P. composed and reviewed the manuscript, tables, and figures.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Pincus, J.D. Values as Motives: Implications for theory, methods, and practice. Integr. psych. behav. (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12124-024-09817-z
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12124-024-09817-z