Abstract
Textile dyeing and weaving of traditional longyi garments have traditionally occurred in the Amarapura township of Mandalay, Myanmar, since 1822, transitioning from natural to chemical dyes in the early 1900s. With no current wastewater treatment facilities in Mandalay, dye effluents mix with other wastewaters in unlined canals dug near people’s homes and discharge into the local canals and groundwater. Because locals rely heavily on dug and tube wells for drinking, bathing, and cooking, this industry poses a major health hazard to the people in this region. The objective of this study was to identify the previously unknown composition of the textile dyes, as well as identify and quantify the concentrations of major ions and heavy metals found in dye effluents, and determine their impact on the local groundwater resources. Powdered dye samples from each stage of the dyeing process were characterized by the combination of heavy metals used to create these color dyes. Groundwater and surface water were also sampled. Results of analysis of the dye and water samples indicated that most of the heavy metals discharge into the groundwater environment. Textile dyeing is a major source of pollution and a health hazard to the residents of Amarapura township; however, the locals are not readily connecting dye practices to the issues with their drinking water. This study provides information on groundwater composition near dyeing industries in Amarapura township that may help inform further monitoring strategies and communicate the health risks of exposure to heavy metals for local people.
Résumé
La teinture et le tissage des vêtements traditionnels longyi se pratiquent selon la coutume dans la municipalité d’Amarapura à Mandalay, au Myanmar, depuis 1822, passant des teintures naturelles aux teintures chimiques au début des années 1900. En l’absence d’installations de traitement des eaux usées à Mandalay, les effluents de teinture se mélangent aux autres eaux usées dans des canaux non revêtus creusés près des habitations et se déversent dans les canaux de quartier et les eaux souterraines. Comme les gens de la région dépendent fortement des puits creusés ou tubés pour la boisson, la toilette et la cuisine, cette industrie représente un risque majeur pour la santé de la population de la région. L’objectif de la présente étude était d’identifier la composition, inconnue auparavant, des teintures textiles, et aussi d’identifier et de quantifier les concentrations en ions majeurs et métaux lourds détectés dans les effluents de teinture et de déterminer leur impact sur les ressources en eaux souterraines locales. Des échantillons pulvérulents de colorant provenant de chaque étape du processus de teinture ont été caractérisés en considérant la gamme des métaux lourds utilisés pour fabriquer ces colorants. Les eaux souterraines et les eaux de surface ont été échantillonnées elles aussi. Les résultats des analyses des échantillons de teinture et d’eau indiquent que la plus grande partie des métaux lourds se déverse dans le milieu souterrain. La teinture textile est une source majeure de pollution et un risque sanitaire pour les habitants de la municipalité d’Amarapura; cependant, les habitants ne font pas facilement le lien entre les pratiques de teinture et les problèmes de dégradation de la qualité de l’eau potable. Cette étude fournit des informations sur la composition des eaux souterraines à proximité des industries textiles sur le territoire de la municipalité d’Amarapura, qui peuvent aider à élaborer de nouvelles stratégies de surveillance et à communiquer sur les risques sanitaires d’une exposition aux métaux lourds pour la population locale.
Resumen
En el municipio de Amarapura, en Mandalay (Myanmar), se tiñen y tejen las prendas tradicionales longyi desde 1822, y a principios del siglo XX se pasó de los tintes naturales a los químicos. Al no existir instalaciones de tratamiento de aguas residuales en Mandalay, los efluentes de los tintes se mezclan con otras aguas residuales en canales sin revestimiento excavados cerca de los hogares y se vierten en los canales locales y en las aguas subterráneas. Dado que la población local depende en gran medida de pozos excavados y entubados para beber, bañarse y cocinar, esta industria supone un grave peligro para la salud de los habitantes de esta región. El objetivo de este estudio era identificar la composición, hasta ahora desconocida, de los tintes textiles, así como identificar y cuantificar las concentraciones de los principales iones y metales pesados presentes en los efluentes de los tintes, y determinar su impacto en los recursos hídricos subterráneos locales. Las muestras de tintes en polvo de cada etapa del proceso de teñido se caracterizaron por la combinación de metales pesados utilizados para crear estos tintes de color. También se tomaron muestras de aguas subterráneas y superficiales. Los resultados de los análisis de las muestras de tinte y de agua indicaron que la mayoría de los metales pesados se vierten en el medio subterráneo. El teñido textil es una fuente importante de contaminación y un peligro para la salud de los habitantes del municipio de Amarapura; sin embargo, los lugareños no relacionan fácilmente las prácticas de teñido con los problemas de su agua potable. Este estudio proporciona información sobre la composición de las aguas subterráneas cerca de las industrias de teñido en el municipio de Amarapura que puede ayudar a informar sobre futuras estrategias de control y a comunicar los riesgos para la salud de la población local de la exposición a metales pesados.
摘要
自1822年以来, 缅甸曼德勒的Amarapura镇一直是传统长裙服装的纺织染色和织造中心, 从自然染料过渡到20世纪初的化学染料。由于曼德勒目前没有废水处理设施, 染料废水与其他废水混合进入居民附近挖的未衬砌的沟渠, 并排入当地的河渠和地下水中。由于当地居民在饮水、沐浴和烹饪方面主要依赖于挖井和管井, 这个产业对该地区的居民构成了重大健康威胁。本研究的目标是识别纺织染料的先前未知成分, 以及识别和定量测定染料废水中的主要离子和重金属浓度, 并确定它们对当地地下水资源的影响。来自染色过程各阶段的染料样品通过使用这些彩色染料的重金属组合进行表征。还对地下水和地表水进行了取样。对染料和水样品的分析结果表明, 大多数重金属排放到地下水环境中。纺织染料是Amarapura镇污染的主要来源, 对当地居民构成了健康威胁; 然而, 当地居民并未认识到染色实践与他们的饮用水问题的关系。这项研究提供了有关Amarapura镇染色产业附近地下水组成的信息, 这有助于制定进一步的监测策略, 并传达暴露于重金属对当地居民的健康风险。
Resumo
O tingimento têxtil e a tecelagem de roupas longyi tradicionais ocorrem tradicionalmente no município de Amarapura, em Mandalay, Mianmar, desde 1822, passando de corantes naturais para corantes químicos no início do século XX. Sem instalações de tratamento de águas residuais em Mandalay, os efluentes corantes misturam-se com outras águas residuais em canais não revestidos escavados perto das casas das pessoas e descarregam nos canais locais e nas águas subterrâneas. Como os habitantes locais dependem fortemente de poços escavados e tubulares para beber, tomar banho e cozinhar, esta indústria representa um grande perigo para a saúde das pessoas desta região. O objetivo deste estudo foi identificar a composição até então desconhecida dos corantes têxteis, bem como identificar e quantificar as concentrações dos íons principais e metais pesados encontrados nos efluentes dos corantes, e determinar seu impacto nos recursos hídricos subterrâneos locais. Amostras de corantes em pó de cada etapa do processo de tingimento foram caracterizadas pela combinação de metais pesados usados para criar esses corantes coloridos. Águas subterrâneas e superficiais também foram amostradas. Os resultados da análise das amostras de corante e água indicaram que a maior parte dos metais pesados é descarregada no ambiente das águas subterrâneas. O tingimento de têxteis é uma importante fonte de poluição e um perigo para a saúde dos residentes do município de Amarapura; no entanto, os habitantes locais não associam prontamente as práticas de tingimento aos problemas da água potável. Este estudo fornece informações sobre a composição das águas subterrâneas perto das indústrias de tingimento no município de Amarapura que podem ajudar a informar estratégias de monitoramento adicionais e a comunicar os riscos para a saúde da exposição a metais pesados para a população local.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ahmad I, Hayat S, Pichtel J (2005) Heavy metal contamination of soil: problems and remedies. Science Publishers, Enfield, NH
Ali A, El-Naggar ME, El-Newehy MH, Rahaman M, Hatshan MR, Khattab TA (2021) Effects of technical textiles and synthetic nanofibers on environmental pollution. Polymers 13(1):155. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13010155
Al-Kdasi A, Idris A, Saed K, Guan CT (2004) Treatment of textile wastewater by advanced oxidation processes: a review. Global Nest 6(3):222–230
Al-Tohamy R, Ali SS, Li F, Okasha KM, Mahmoud YA, Elsamahy T, Jiao H, Fu Y, Sun J (2022) A critical review on the treatment of dye-containing wastewater: ecotoxicological and health concerns of textile dyes and possible remediation approaches for environmental safety. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 231:113160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2021.113160
Amte GK, Mhaskar TV (2012) Studies on textile dyeing effluent from Bhiwandi city dist: Thane, Maharashtra India. J Indust Pollut Control 28(2):197–199
Asian Development Bank (2013) Myanmar: urban development and water sector assessment, strategy, and road map. Asian Development Bank. https://www.adb.org/documents/myanmar-urban-development-and-water-sector-assessment-strategy-and-road-map. Accessed 01 Feb 2024
Bacquart T, Frisbie S, Mitchell E, Grigg L, Cole C, Small C, Sarkar B (2015) Multiple inorganic toxic substances contaminating the groundwater of the Myingyan Township, Myanmar: arsenic, manganese, fluoride, iron, and uranium. Sci Total Environ 517:232–245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.02.038
Balakrishnan M, Antony SA, Gunasekaran S, Natarajan RK (2008) Impact of dyeing industrial effluents on the groundwater quality in Kancheepuram (India). Indian J Sci Tech 1(7):1–8. https://doi.org/10.17485/ijst/2008/v1i7.13
Berkessa YW, Yan B, Li T, Jegathessan V, Yang Z (2020) Treatment of anthraquinone dye textile wastewater using anaerobic dynamic membrane bioreactor: performance and microbial dynamics. Chemosphere 238:124539. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.124539
Besset M, Anthony EJ, Dussouillez P, Goichot M (2017) The impact of Cyclone Nargis on the Ayeyarwady (Irrawaddy) River delta shoreline and nearshore zone (Myanmar): towards degraded delta resilience? CR Geosci 349(6–7):238–247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crte.2017.09.002
Chairungsri W, Subkomkaew A, Kijjanapanich P, Chimupala Y (2022) Direct dye wastewater photocatalysis using immobilized titanium dioxide on fixed substrate. Chemosphere 286:131762. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.131762
Charlet L, Polya DA (2006) Arsenic in shallow, reducing groundwaters in southern Asia: an environmental health disaster. Elements 2(2):91–96. https://doi.org/10.2113/gselements.2.2.91
Cook PG, Rodellas V, Stieglitz TC (2018) Quantifying surface water, porewater, and groundwater interactions using tracers: tracer fluxes, water fluxes, and end-member concentrations. Water Resour Res 54(3):2452–2465. https://doi.org/10.1002/2017WR021780
Deng D, Lamssali M, Aryal N, Ofori-Boadu A, Jha MK, Samuel RE (2020) Textiles wastewater treatment technology: a review. Water Environ Res 92:1805–1810. https://doi.org/10.1002/wer.1437
Deverel SJ, Goldberg S, Fujii R (2012) Chemistry of trace elements in soils and groundwater. Agricultural salinity assessment and management, 2nd edn. ASCE manual and reports on engineering practice No. 71, ASCE, Reston, VA, pp 88–137
Drury LW (2017) Hydrogeology of the dry zone-central Myanmar. Australian Water Partnership, Canberra, Australia
Evanko CR, Dzombak DA (1997) Remediation of metals-contaminated soils and groundwater. Technology evaluation report no. TE-97–01. https://clu-in.org/download/toolkit/metals.pdf. Accessed 01 Feb 2024
Ferreira ESB, Hulme AN, McNab H, Quye A (2004) The natural constituents of historical textile dyes. Chem Soc Rev 33(6):329. https://doi.org/10.1039/b305697j
Fetter CW, Boving TB, Kreamer DK (2018) Contaminant hydrogeology, 3rd edn., vol 500. Waveland Press, Salem, WI
Florida Department of Environmental Protection (2021) Inorganic contaminants. https://floridadep.gov/water/source-drinking-water/content/inorganic-contaminants. Accessed 12 Feb 2021
Freeman NJ (2019) Whither Myanmar’s garment sector. SEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute, Pasir Panjang, Singapore
Freeman S (2019) Textile dyes as a source of groundwater contamination in Mandalay, Myanmar. MSc Thesis, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, IL
Global Water Partnership (2016) Water security and the sustainable development goals (SDGs) high level round table. https://www.gwp.org/contentassets/985bec2240b845c6ae9ea08446fcbd22/myanmar---high-level-round-table-final-report.pdf. Accessed 01 Feb 2024
Grzybowski M, Lenczewski ME, Oo YY (2019) Water quality and physical hydrogeology of the Amarapura township, Mandalay, Myanmar. Hydrogeol J 27(4):1497–1513. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-018-01922-9
Harris I, Jones PD, Osborn TJ, Lister DH (2014) Updated high-resolution grids of monthly climatic observations: the CRU TS3.10 Dataset. Int J Climatol 34:623–642. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.3711
Hasan MK, Miah M (2014) Impacts of textile dyeing industries effluents on surface water quality: a study on Araihazar Thana in Narayanganj District of Bangladesh. J Environ Human 1(3):8–22. https://doi.org/10.15764/EH.2014.03002
Htwe KM (2019) Preliminary study on the groundwater flow situation of Yadanabon University and its environs, Mandalay Region. The Third Myanmar National Conference on Earth Sciences, November 7–8, 2019, Yadanabon University, Mandalay, Myanmar
ICHCAP (2019) The tradition of Acheik weaving in Myanmar. ICHCAP. https://www.unesco-ichcap.org/the-tradition-of-acheik-weaving-in-myanmar/. Accessed 10 Jan 2019
Islam MR, Mostafa (2018) Textile dyeing effluents and environment concerns: a review. J Environ Sci Nat Resour 11(1–2):313–144. https://doi.org/10.3329/jesnr.v11i1-2.43380
Islam T, Repon MR, Islam T, Sarwar Z, Rahman MM (2023) Impact of textile dyes on health and ecosystem: a review of structure, causes, and potential solutions. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 30(4):9207–9242. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-24398-3
Karbowska B (2016) Presence of thallium in the environment: sources of contaminations, distribution and monitoring methods. Environ Monit Assess 188(11):640. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-016-5647-y
Khaing YK, Win KH, Khaing T (2019) Water quality assessment and treatment of tube well water from selected areas in Mandalay Region, Myanmar. IJSRP 9(7). https://doi.org/10.29322/IJSRP.9.07.2019.p9193
Khattab TA, Abdelrahman MS, Rehan M (2019) Textile dyeing industry: environmental impacts and remediation. Environ Sci Pollut Res 274(27):3803–3818. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-07137-z
Kishor R, Purchase D, Saratale GD, Saratale RG, Ferreira LFR, Bial M, Chandra R, Bharagava RN (2021) Ecotoxicological and health concerns of persistent coloring pollutants of textile industry wastewater and treatment approaches for environmental safety. J Environ Chem Eng 9:105012. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2020.105012
Kravtsova WI, Mikhailov VN, Kidyaeva VM (2009) Hydrological regime, morphological features and natural territorial complexes of the Irrawaddy River Delta (Myanmar). Water Resour 36(3):243–260. https://doi.org/10.1134/S0097807809030014
Lin YN (2020) The transformation of weaving in Myanmar from the tradition to the modernity and its impacy. Univ Mandalay Res J 11:285–298
Marks MAW, Kendrick MA, Eby GN, Zack T, Wenzel T (2017) The F, Cl, Br and I contents of reference glasses BHVO-2G, BIR-1G, BCR-2G, GSD-1G, GSE-1G, NIST SRM 610 and NIST SRM 612. Geostand Geoanal Res 41:107–122. https://doi.org/10.1111/ggr.12128
Mehra S, Singh M, Chadha P (2021) Adverse impact of textile dyes on the aquatic environment as well as on human beings. Toxicol Int 28(2):165–176. https://doi.org/10.18311/ti/2021/v28i2/26798
Mia R, Selim M, Shamim AM, Chowdhury M, Sultana S, Armin M, Hossain M, Akter R, Dey S, Na H (2019) Review on various types of pollution problem in textile dyeing & printing industries of Bangladesh and recommendation for mitigation. J Textile Eng Fash Tech 5:220–226. https://doi.org/10.15406/jteft.2019.05.00205
Ministry of Health (2014) National Drinking Water Quality Standards Myanmar. https://www.unicef.org/myanmar/media/1916/file/National%20Strategy%20for%20Rural%20Water%20Supply,%20Sanitation%20and%20Hygiene%20.pdf. Accessed 01 Feb 2024
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency (2019) Copper, chromium, nickel and zinc in Minnesota’s groundwater. https://www.pca.state.mn.us/sites/default/files/wq-am1-10.pdf. Accessed 01 Feb 2024
Mon HH, Myint A, Ei PS, Htwe MM (2022) A geographical study on land cover changes in surrounding area of Taungthaman Lake in Amarapura Township, Mandalay Region. Yadanabon Univ Res J 12(1):92–100
Munnaf A, Islam MS, Tusher TR, Kabir MH, Molla AH (2014) Investigation of water quality parameters discharged from textile dyeing industries. J Environ Sci Nat Resour 7(1):257–263. https://doi.org/10.3329/jesnr.v7i1.22180
Pavelic P, Senaratna Sellamuttu S, Johnston R, McCartney M, Sotoukee T, Balasubramanya S, Suhardiman D, Lacombe G, Douangsavanh S, Joffre O, Latt K, Zan K, Thein K, Myint A, Cho C, and Htut Y (2015) Integrated assessment of groundwater use for improving livelihoods in the dry zone of Myanmar. Research Report 164, International Water Management Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanke. https://doi.org/10.5337/2015.216
Peter ALJ, Viraraghavan T (2005) Thallium: a review of public health and environmental concerns. Environ Int 31(4):493–501. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2004.09.003
Prabha S, Kumar M, Kumar A, Das P, Ramanathan A (2013) Impact assessment of textile effluent on groundwater quality in the vicinity of Tirupur industrial area, southern India. Environ Earth Sci 70(7):3015–3022. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-013-2361-8
Quantum Geographic Information System (2016) QGIS 3.6.1: a free and open source geographic information system. Open Source Geospatial Foundation. http://www.qgis.org/en/site/index.html. Accessed 01 Feb 2024
Rabbi MA, Hossen J, Sarwar MM, Roy PK, Shaheed SB, Hasan MM (2018) Investigation of waste water quality parameters discharged from textile manufacturing industries of Bangladesh. https://doi.org/10.12944/CWE.13.2.05
Ramesh BB, Parande AK, Raghu S, Prem Kumar T (2007) An overview of wastes produced during cotton textile processing and effluent treatment methods. J Cotton Sci 11:141–153
Rathor G, Chopra N, Adhikari T (2014) Nickel as a pollutant and its management. Int Res J Environ Sci 3(10):94–98
Reddy S, Osborne J (2020) Heavy metal determination and aquatic toxicity evaluation of textile dyes and effluents using Artemia salina. Biocatal Agric Biotechnol 25:101574. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bcab.2020.101574
Richards LA, Lapworth DJ, Magnone D, Gooddy DC, Chambers L, Williams PJ, Dongen BEV, Polya DA (2019) Dissolved organic matter tracers reveal contrasting characteristics across high arsenic aquifers in Cambodia: a fluorescence spectroscopy study. Geosci Front 10(5):1653–1667. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2019.04.009
Sen Roy N, Kaur S (2000) Climatology of monsoon rains of Myanmar (Burma). Int J Climatol 20(8):913–928. https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-0088(20000630)20:8<913::AID-JOC485>3.3.CO;2-L
Senthilnathan S, Azeez PA (1999) Water quality of effluents from dyeing and bleaching industry in Tirupur, Tamilnadu, India. J Indust Pollut Control 15(1):79–88. https://doi.org/10.1007/s001289900878
Smedley P (2020) Groundwater quality: Myanmar. British Geological Survey. https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/527955. Accessed 01 Feb 2024
United States Environmental Protection Agency (2004) Drinking water health advisory for manganese. https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2014-09/documents/support_cc1_magnese_dwreport_0.pdf. Accessed 01 Feb 2024
United States Environmental Protection Agency (2021) National primary drinking water regulations. https://www.epa.gov/ground-water-and-drinking-water/national-primary-drinking-water-regulations. Accessed 05 Jan 2021
Vengosh A, Pankratov I (1998) Chloride/bromide and chloride/fluoride ratios of domestic sewage effluents and associated contaminated ground water. Groundwater 36(5):815–824. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6584.1998.tb02200.x
World Health Organization (2003a) Aluminum in drinking-water.https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/75362/WHO_SDE_WSH_03.04_53_eng.pdf?sequence=1&ua=1. Accessed 01 Feb 2024
World Health Organization (2003b) Antimony in drinking-water. https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/wash-documents/wash-chemicals/antimony.pdf. Accessed 01 Feb 2024
World Health Organization (2003c) Iron in drinking-water. https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/wash-documents/wash-chemicals/iron-bd.pdf?sfvrsn=8bde1f09_4#:~:text=Drinking%2Dwater%20containing%200.3%20mg,%C2%B5g%2Fday%20in%20urban%20areas.&text=Iron%20is%20an%20essential%20trace%20element%20in%20living%20organisms. Accessed 01 Feb 2024
World Health Organization (2004) Barium in drinking-water. https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/wash-documents/wash-chemicals/barium-background-jan17.pdf. Accessed 01 Feb 2024
World Health Organization (2017) Guidelines for drinking-water quality, 4th edn. World Health Organization. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/254637/9789241549950-eng.pdf?sequence=1. Accessed 01 Feb 2024
Wuana RA, Okieimen FE (2011) Heavy metals in contaminated soils: a review of sources, chemistry, risks and best available strategies for remediation. ISRN Ecol 2011:1–20. https://doi.org/10.5402/2011/402647
Yangon City Development Committee (2018) Myanmar National Drinking Water Quality Standards 2014. Water quality survey report for Haling River basin. https://www.myanmarwaterportal.com/storage/eb/articles/1455/JICA-Water-Report-from-YCDC.pdf. Accessed 01 Feb 2024
Zaw K, Win S, Barber AJ, Crow MJ, Yin YN (2017) Introduction to the geology of Myanmar, chap 1. Geol Soc Lond Mem 48(1):1.1–17. https://doi.org/10.1144/M48.1
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Dr. Anna Buczynska and Josh Schwartz at Northern Illinois University and Dr. Heather Watson at Union College for their assistance with laboratory analyses; Moe Myint Kyaw for his assistance in field sampling and translation in Myanmar; Dr. Tin Aung Mint for assistance and translation in Myanmar; Michael Grzybowski for his assistance with background research; and Stan Zaworski at First Environmental Laboratories (Lisle, Illinois, USA) for heavy metal analyses. This research is based on the MSc thesis by Surya Freeman at Northern Illinois University (2019). The authors would also like to acknowledge Associate Editor Brindha Karthikeyan and two anonymous reviewers.
Funding
This study was funded by the National Groundwater Association Research and Education Foundations Developing Nations Fund and the Geological Society of America Graduate Student Diversity Grant and Research Grant.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
There is no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Freeman, S.M., Oo, C.W., Lenczewski, M.E. et al. Textile dyes as a source of groundwater contamination in Mandalay, Myanmar. Hydrogeol J (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-024-02775-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-024-02775-1