Abstract
Hydrocarbon enrichment in faulted basins is often controlled by the activity of faults with some degree of sealing capacity. However, the rules that control the migration and accumulation of hydrocarbons in reservoirs dominated by faults are poorly understood. The Liuzhuang fault in the Bohai Bay Basin is selected for hydrocarbon migration and accumulation research. Interpretation of seismic and log data, tests of rock mechanics, and quantitative fluorescence analysis are used to quantitatively evaluate the migration of hydrocarbons. The results reveal that the Liuzhuang fault has been a long-term active fault since the Cenozoic with gradually reduced fault activity from the NE to the SW. At least four fault-bounded traps with various degrees of trap filling in the lower segment of the first member of Shahejie Formation (Es1L) were identified in the hanging wall of this fault. This differences in the degree of filling are related to the continuity of the smear structure that formed from the Es1m cap rock in the brittle‒ductile transition stage. The development degree of the smear structure, which is quantitatively evaluated by the shale smear factor (SSF) and shale gouge ratio (SGR), directly affected the fault sealing capacity. Therefore, three cases of hydrocarbon migration and accumulation, i.e., continuous smearing along the fault and complete fault sealing with SSF values of < 3, reduced continuity of the smear structure and partial fault sealing with SSF values in the range of 3–5, and discontinuous smearing and ineffective fault sealing with SSF values of > 5, were defined. The new results have implications for further exploration in faulted basins, including the Bohai Bay Basin.
Graphical abstract
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
References
Atilla A, Eyal Y (2002) Anatomy of a normal fault with shale smear: implications for fault sealing. AAPG Bull 86(8):1367–1381. https://doi.org/10.1306/61EEDC9C-173E-11D7-8645000102C1865D
Aydin A, Eyal Y (2002) Anatomy of a normal fault with shale smear: Implications for fault seal. AAPG Bull 86(8):1367–1381. https://doi.org/10.1306/61EEDC9C-173E-11D7-8645000102C1865D
Bashir A, Koledoye AA, May E (2003) A new process-based methodology for shale smear analyses in the Niger Delta. AAPG Bull 87(3):445–463. https://doi.org/10.1306/08010200131
Bell RE, Jackson AL, Whipp PS, Clements B (2014) Strain migration during multiphase extension: observations from the northern North Sea. Tectonics 33(10):1936–1963. https://doi.org/10.1002/2014TC003551
Bense VF, Gleeson T, Loveless SE, Bour O, Scibek J (2013) Fault zone hydrogeology. Earth Sci Rev 127:171–192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2013.09.008
Boles JR, Eichhubl P, Garven G, Chen J (2004) Evolution of a hydrocarbon migration pathway along basin bounding faults. Evidence from Fault Cement. AAPG Bull 88(7):947–970. https://doi.org/10.1306/02090403040
Bourdet J, Burruss RC, Chou IM (2014) Evidence for a palaeo-oil column and alteration of residual oil in a gas-condensate field: Integrated oil inclusion and experimental results. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 142(142):362–385. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2014.07.022
Cai CE, Liu Z, Qiu NS, He JL, Xu SH (2015) Hydrocarbon accumulation in the northwest Chaluhe Fault Depression, Yitong Basin, North China. Aust J Earth Sci 62(4):513–527. https://doi.org/10.1080/08120099.2015.1054881
Childs C, Walsh JJ, Manzocchi T, Strand J, Nicol A, Tomasso M (2007) Definition of a fault permeability predictor from outcrop studies of a faulted turbidite sequence, Taranaki, New Zealand. Geol Soc Lond Special Publ 292(1):235–258. https://doi.org/10.1144/SP292.14
Chu R, Yan DP, Qiu L, Wang HX, Wang Q (2023) Quantitative constraints on hydrocarbon vertical leakage: insights from underfilled fault-bound traps in the Bohai Bay Basin, China. Mar Pet Geol 149:106078–106078. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2022.106078
Cong F, Zhang H, Hao F, Xu S (2020) Direct control of normal fault in hydrocarbon migration and accumulation in northwestern Bozhong Sub-basin Bohai Bay Basin China. Mar Petrol Geol. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2020.104555
Dee SJ, Yielding G, Freeman B, Bretan P (2007) A comparison between deterministic and stochastic fault seal techniques. Geol Soc Lond Special Publ 116(9):B09206–B09220. https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JB008279
Doughty PT (2003) Clay smear sealings and fault sealing potential of an exhumed growth fault, Rio Grande rift, New Mexico. AAPG Bull 87(3):427–444. https://doi.org/10.1306/10010201130
Dutzer JF, Basford H, Purves S (2010) Investigating fault-sealing potential through fault relative seismic volume analysis. Geol Soc Lond Petrol Geol Conf Ser 1:509–515. https://doi.org/10.1144/0070509
Edlmann K, Haszeldine S, Mcdermott CI (2013) Experimental investigation into the sealing capability of naturally fractured shale caprocks to supercritical carbon dioxide flow. Environ Earth Sci 70(7):3393–3409. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-013-2407-y
Eichhubl P, Davatz NC, Becker SP (2009) Structural and diagenetic control of fluid migration and cementation along the Moab Fault, Utah. AAPG Bull 93(5):653–681. https://doi.org/10.1306/02180908080
Faerseth RB (2006) Shale smear along large faults: continuity of smear and the fault sealing capacity. J Geol Soc 163(5):741–751. https://doi.org/10.1144/0016-76492005-162
Fan CY, Braathen A, Wang ZL, Zhang XQ, Chen SY, Feng NN, Wang AG, Huang L (2019) Flow pathway and evolution of water and oil along reverse faults in the northwestern Sichuan Basin, China. AAPG Bull 103(5):1153–1177. https://doi.org/10.1306/10261816501
Fisher QJ, Knipe RJ (2001) The permeability of faults within siliciclastic petroleum reservoirs of the North Sea and Norwegian Continental Shelf. Mar Pet Geol 18(10):1063–1081. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0264-8172(01)00042-3
Fu XF, Guo X, Zhu LX, Lu YF (2012) Formation and evolution of clay smear and hydrocarbon migration and sealing. J China Univ Min Technol 41(1):52–63
Fu XF, Jia R, Wang HX (2015) Quantitative evaluation of fault-caprock sealing capacity: a case from Dabei-Kelasu structural belt in Kuqa depression, Tarim basin, NW China. Petrol Exploration Dev 42(3):329–338. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1876-3804(15)30023-9
Fu XF, Song XQ, Wang HX, Liu HT, Wang SY, Meng LD (2021) Comprehensive evaluation on hydrocarbon-bearing availability of fault traps in a rift basin: a case study of the Qikou sag in the Bohai Bay Basin, China. Petrol Exploration Dev 48(4):1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1876-3804(21)60066-6
Grant NT (2020) Stochastic modelling of fault gouge zones: implications for fault seal analysis. Geol Soc Lond. https://doi.org/10.1144/sp496-2018-135
Guo CM, Shi ZS (2009) Diagenesis and pore evolution of the first member of Shahejie Formation in Qikou Sag. Lithol Reservoirs 1:34–39
Holland M, Urai JL, Zee W, Stanjek H, Konstanty J (2006) Fault gouge evolution in highly overconsolidated claystones. J Struct Geol 28(2):323–332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2005.10.005
Hou YG, He S, Ni J, Wang B (2012) Tectono-sequence stratigraphic analysis on paleogene shahejie formation in the Banqiao sub-basin, Eastern China. Mar Petrol Geol 36(1):100–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2012.06.001
Hui JL, Tairan W, Zong JM, Wen CZ (2004) Pressure retardation of organic maturation in clastic reservoirs: a case study from the Banqiao sag, eastern China. Mar Pet Geol 21(9):1083–1093. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2004.07.005
Ingram GM, Urai JL (1999) Top-seal leakage through faults and fractures: the role of mudrock properties. Geol Soc Lond Special Publ 158(1):125–135. https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.1999.158.01.10
Ishii E, Sanada H, Funaki H, Sugita Y, Kurikami H (2011) The relationships among brittleness, deformation behavior, and transport properties in mudstones: an example from the Horonobe underground research laboratory, Japan. J Geophys Res Solid Earth 116(9):B09206–B09220. https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JB008279
James WR, Fairchild LH, Nakayama GP, Hippler SJ, Vrolijk PJ (2004) Fault-seal analysis using a stochastic multifault approach. AAPG Bull 88(7):885–904. https://doi.org/10.1306/02180403059
Jin ZJ, Cao J, Hu WX, Zhang YJ, Yao SP, Wang XL, Zhang YQ, Tang Y, Shi XP (2008) Episodic petroleum fluid migration in fault zones of the northwestern Junggar Basin (northwest China): evidence from hydrocarbon-bearing zoned calcite cement. AAPG Bull 92(9):1225–1243. https://doi.org/10.1306/06050807124
Laurent L, Strand J, Andrew SR (2016) Fault-related biogenic mounds in the Ceduna Sub-basin, Australia. Implications for hydrocarbon migration. Mar Pet Geol 74:47–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2016.04.006
Lehner FK, Pilaar WF (1997) The emplacement of clay smears in syn-sedimentary normal faults: inferences from field observations near Frechen, Germany. Norwegian Petrol Soc Special Publ 7:39–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0928-8937(97)80005-7
Lindsay NG, Walsh JJ, Watterson J, Murphy FC (1993) Outcrop studies of shale smears on fault surfaces. In: Flint SS, Bryant ID (eds) The geological modelling of hydrocarbon reservoirs and outcrop analogues. Blackwell Scientific Publications Inc, Oxford, UK, pp 113–123
Liu H, Hong Z, Zhang J, Niu H, Li S, Long L (2016a) Sedimentary characteristics and seismic geomorphology of gravity-flow channels in a rift basin: Oligocene Shahejie Formation, Qinan Slope, Huanghua Depression of Bohai Bay Basin, China. Mar Pet Geol 78:807–825. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2016.02.014
Liu H, Zhao DG, Jiang YL, Zhuang M, Liu Y (2016b) Hydrocarbon accumulation model for Neogene traps in the Chengdao area, Bohai Bay Basin, China. Mar Pet Geol 77:731–745. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2016.06.017
Liu QY, Song L, Jiang T, Cao T, Xiao D (2017) Geochemistry and correlation of oils and source rocks in Banqiao sag, Huanghua depression, northern China. Int J Coal Geol 176:49–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2017.04.005
Liu B, Wang S, Xuan K, Fu XF, Liu XZ, Bai YF, Pan ZJ (2020) Mechanical characteristics and factors controlling brittleness of organic-rich continental shales. J Petrol Sci Eng. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.petrol.2020.107464
Luo XR, Zhang L, Liao Q (2007) Simulation of hydrocarbon migration dynamics in shahejie formation of chengbei fault step zone. Oil Gas Geol 28(2):191–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1872-5813(07)60034-6
Lyu YF, Wang W, Hu XL, Fu G, Shi JJ, Wang C, Liu Z, Jiang WY (2016) Quantitative evaluation method of fault lateral sealing. Pet Explor Dev 43(2):340–347. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1876-3804(16)30040-4
Nygård R, Gutierrez M, Bratli RK, Hoeg K (2006) Brittle–ductile transition, shear failure and leakage in shales and mudrocks. Mar Pet Geol 23(2):201–212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2005.10.001
Palladino G, Rizzo RE, Zvirtes G, Grippa A, Alsop GI (2020) Multiple episodes of sand injection leading to accumulation and leakage of hydrocarbons along the San Andreas/San Gregorio fault system California. Mar Petrol Geol. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2020.104431
Pei YW, Paton DA, Knipe RJ, Wu KY (2015) A review of fault sealing behaviour and its evaluation in siliciclastic rocks. Earth-Sci Rev 150:121–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2015.07.011
Salvetat JP, Kulik AJ, Bonard JM, Briggs GAD, Forró L (1999) Elastic modulus of ordered and disordered multiwalled carbon nanotubes. Adv Mater. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1521-4095(199902)11:23.0.CO;2-J
Song XQ, Wang HX, Fu XF, Meng LD, Sun YH, Liu ZD, Du RS (2021) Hydrocarbon retention and leakage in traps bounded by active faults: a case study from traps along the NDG fault in the Qinan area, Bohai Bay Basin, China. J Petrol Sci Eng. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.petrol.2021.109344
Sperrevik S, Faeling RB, Gabrielsen RH (2000) Experiments on clay smear formation along faults. Pet Geosci 6(2):113–123. https://doi.org/10.1144/petgeo.6.2.113
Sun MS, Liu CY, Chen SP, Feng CJ, Hang L (2016) Control of petroleum traps by Cenozoic tectonic style in the Liaodong Bay area, of the Bohai Bay Basin, China. Arab J Geosci. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-016-2311-3
Tarasov B, Potvin Y (2013) Universal criteria for rock brittleness estimation under triaxial compression. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 59:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrmms.2012.12.011
Ten Cate JA, Shankland TJ (1996) Slow dynamics in the nonlinear elastic response of Berea sandstone. Geophys Res Lett 23(21):3019–3022. https://doi.org/10.1029/96GL02884
Tian LX, Wang QB, Liu XJ, Hao YW (2020) Geological features and their participation in the formation of silicified clastic reservoirs in the Shahejie Formation of Laizhouwan Sag, Bohai Sea. Oil Gas Geol. https://doi.org/10.11743/ogg20200517
Velayatham T, Holford SP, Bunch MA, King RC (2021) Fault controlled focused fluid flow in the Ceduna Sub-basin, offshore south Australia; evidence from 3d seismic reflection data. Mar Petrol Geol. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2020.104813
Wang YC, Zhu L, Wang L, Sun YH, Guo XX (2015) Fault system characteristics of Fuyu—Yangdachengzi oil layer in the west slope of the northern Xingshugang oil field. J Central South Univ Sci Technol 46(3):997–1005. https://doi.org/10.11817/j.issn.1672-7207.2015.03.030
Wang S, Liu B, Fu XF, Zhao WC (2018) Evaluation of the brittleness and fracturing characteristics for tight clastic reservoir. Oil Gas Geol 39:1270–1279. https://doi.org/10.11743/ogg20180616
Wang S, Zhao WC, Fu XF, Zhang ZM, Wang TT, Ge J (2020) A universal method for quantitatively evaluating rock brittle-ductile transition behaviors. J Petrol Sci Eng. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.petrol.2020.107774
Wang Q, Sun YH, Zhang WF, Wang YG, Cao LZ, Li XW (2022) Structural characteristics and mechanism of the Hengshui accommodation zone in the southern Jizhong subbasin Bohai Bay basin China. Marine Petroleum Geol 138:105558. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2022.105558
Wang Q, Sun YH, Zhang WF, Wang YG, Qin SH, Qiao FY, Xie L, Chen GW, Chu R (2023) Cenozoic evolution and deformation in the Eastern and Western depression of the Liaohe Subbasin, Bohai Bay Basin: insights from seismic data. Basin Res 00:1–28. https://doi.org/10.1111/bre.12784
Welch MJ, Knipe RJ, Souque C, Davies RK (2009) A Quadshear kinematic model for folding and clay smear development in fault zones. Tectonophysics 471(3–4):186–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2009.02.008
Williams RT, Goodwin LB, Mozley PS, Beard BL, Johnson CM (2015) Tectonic controls on fault zone flow pathways in the Rio Grande rift, New Mexico, USA. Geology 43:723–726. https://doi.org/10.1130/G36799.1
Xu CG, Peng JS, Wu QX, Sun Z, Ye T (2019) Vertical dominant migration channel and hydrocarbon migration in complex fault zone, Bohai Bay Sag, China. Petrol Explor Dev 46(4):720–728. https://doi.org/10.11698/PED.2019.04.06
Yielding G (2002) Shale gouge ratio – calibration by geohistory. In: Koestler AG, Hunsdale R (eds) Hydrocarbon Seal Quantification, vol 11. Norwegian Petroleum Society (NPF) Special Publications, Amsterdam, pp 1–15
Yielding G (2012) Using probabilistic shale smear modelling to relate SGR predictions of column height to fault-zone heterogeneity. Pet Geosci 18(1):33–42. https://doi.org/10.1144/1354-079311-013
Yielding G, Freeman B, Needham DT (1997) Quantitative fault sealing prediction. Am Asso Petrol Geol Bull 81:897–917. https://doi.org/10.1306/522B498D-1727-11D7-8645000102C1865D
Zhang LK, Luo XR, Vasseur G, Yu CH, Yang W, Lei YH, Song CP, Yu L, Yan JZ (2011) Evaluation of geological factors in characterizing fault connectivity during hydrocarbon migration: application to the Bohai Bay Basin. Mar Pet Geol 28(9):1634–1647. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2011.06.008
Zhang XQ, Song MS, Hou ZS, Hao RR, Zhang Q, Liu YM, Chen SP, Wu ZP (2019) Coupling relationship between structure and sedimentation and the controlling effect on hydrocarbon accumulation in the rift basin: a case study of the Paleogene in the Chengbei sag, Bohai Bay basin. J China Univ Min Technol 48(6):1317–1329
Zhang FS, An M, Zhang LY, Fang Y, Elsworth D (2020) Effect of mineralogy on friction-dilation relationships for simulated faults: implications for permeability evolution in caprock faults. Geosci Front 11:79–90
Zou HY, Gong ZS, Teng C (2011) Late-stage rapid accumulation of the PL19-3 giant oilfield in an active fault zone during Neotectonism in the Bozhong Depression, Bohai Bay. Sci China Earth Sci 54(3):388–398. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11430-010-4144-3
Acknowledgements
We thank the Northeast Petroleum University for providing samples and quantitative grain fluorescence analyses. We thank Ulrich Riller, Peter Kukla, Michael Kettermann and an anonymous reviewer for their helpful comments that considerably improved this paper.
Funding
This study was supported by the Youth Foundation of Northeast Petroleum University (Grant No. 2019QNL-01).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
All authors contributed to the study conception and design. The first draft of the manuscript was written by RC. YGW and HTS reviewed and edited the manuscript, and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interests
The authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Chu, R., Wang, YG. & Shi, HT. Quantitative evaluation of fault sealing capacity and hydrocarbon migration: insight from the Liuzhuang fault in the Bohai Bay Basin, China. Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch) 113, 459–475 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-024-02387-w
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-024-02387-w