Abstract
The tomography results reveal not only distinct velocity structures in different tectonic zones but can also provide valuable insights into the geological features of the area. This study presents the results of 2D Rayleigh wave tomographic maps obtained in NE Iran. For this purpose, we used the recorded waveforms of more than 500 earthquakes with M > 4 that occurred between January 2000 and October 2020 at 165 stations. The calculated tomographic maps cover a period range of 3 to 36 s, providing the 3D VS model to analyze crustal structure at depths ranging from 2 to 30 km. At shorter periods, the tomographic maps are primarily influenced by sediment thickness, with the presence of thick sediment layers (~ 10 km) responsible for the observed low VS anomalies (< 3.1 km/s) in the study area. At longer periods, the tomographic maps highlight the structural characteristics of the middle-lower crustal layers and, somewhere, the depth variations of the Moho discontinuity. The VS model also confirms the correlation between tectonic fractures and known faults in the study area as boundaries of seismotectonic provinces. Moreover, a distinct area was observed beneath the Binalud foreland, which we interpreted as a suture zone, as suggested by previous studies. The reliability of the resolved anomalies was supported through a series of tests, including checkerboard and earthquake location uncertainties. These tests demonstrated the robustness of the results and provided confidence in the accuracy of the findings.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The data was provided by the Iranian Seismological Center (IrSC; https://irsc.ut.ac.ir; last accessed July 2023), International Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Seismology (IIEES, www.iiees.ac.ir, last accessed January 2024), and IRIS (www.iris.edu, last accessed January 2024) global network. The focal mechanism in Fig. 1 was obtained by IrSC (https://irsc.ut.ac.ir/tansormoman/20200507.2018,Mw4.9.pdf; last accessed January 2024).
References
Afra M, Shirzad T, Farrokhi M, Braunmiller J, Hatami M-R, Naghavi M, Rahimi H, Motavalli-Anbaran S-H, Entezar-Saadat V, Saadat SA (2021) Three-dimensional P-wave tomography in the Central Alborz. Iran Phys Earth Planet Inter 315:106711. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pepi.2021.106711
Afshar A, Mahmoodabadi M, Yaminifard F, Javan-Doloei G (2022) Crustal structure of the northern Lut Block in Eastern Iran using P wave receiver function migration. J Seismol Earthq Eng 24:1
Aki K, Richards PG (1980) Quantitative seismology: theory and methods. 1. Freeman. https://doi.org/10.1016/0040-1951(81)90282-1
Alavi M (1992) Thrust tectonics of the Binalud Region. NE Iran Tectonics 11(2):360–370. https://doi.org/10.1029/91TC02217
Alavi M (1996) Tectonostratigraphic synthesis and structural style of the Alborz mountain system in northern Iran. J Geodyn 21(1):1–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/0264-3707(95)00009-7
Alinaghi A, Koulakov I, Thybo H (2007) Seismic tomographic imaging of P- and S-waves velocity perturbations in the upper mantle beneath Iran. Geophys J Int 169(3):1089–1102. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.2007.03317.x
Allen M, Ghassemi M, Shahrabi M, Qorashi M (2003) Accommodation of late Cenozoic oblique shortening in the Alborz range, northern Iran. J Struct Geol 25(5):659–672. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8141(02)00064-0
Ambraseys N, Melville C (1982) A history of Persian earthquakes. Cambridge Univ. Press, New York
Barmin MP, Ritzwoller MH, Levshin AL (2001) A fast and reliable method for surface wave tomography. Pure Appl Geophys 158(8):1351–1375. https://doi.org/10.1007/PL00001225
Berberian M (1976) Pre-quaternary faults in Iran. Geol Surv Iran 39:259–269
Berberian M, King G (1981) Towards a paleogeography and tectonic evolution of Iran. Can J Earth Sci 18(2):210–265. https://doi.org/10.1139/e81-019
Berberian M, Yeats RS (1999) Patterns of historical earthquake rupture in the Iranian Plateau. Bull Seismol Soc Am 89(1):120–139. https://doi.org/10.1785/BSSA0890010120
Berberian M (1981) Active faulting and tectonics of Iran. In Zagros Hindu Kush Himalaya geodynamic evolution (33–69). https://doi.org/10.1029/GD003p0033
Dehghani G, Makris J (1983) The gravity field and crustal structure of Iran. https://doi.org/10.1127/njgpa/168/1984/215
Dziewonski A, Bloch S, Landisman M (1969) A technique for the analysis of transient seismic signals. Bull Seismol Soc Am 59(1):427–444. https://doi.org/10.1785/bssa0590010427
Engdahl ER, Jackson JA, Myers SC, Bergman EA, Priestley K (2006) Relocation and assessment of seismicity in the Iran region. Geophys J Int 167(2):761–778. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.2006.03127.x
Herrin E, Goforth T (1977) Phase-matched filters: application to the study of Rayleigh waves. Bull Seismol Soc Am 67(5):1259–1275. https://doi.org/10.1785/bssa0670051259
Herrmann RB (2013) Computer programs in seismology: an evolving tool for instruction and research. Seismol Res Lett 84(6):1081–1088. https://doi.org/10.1785/0220110096
Herrmann RB, Ammon CJ (2013) Computer programs in seismology – surface waves, receiver function and crystal structure. Saint Louis University.http://www.eas.slu.edu/People/RBHerrmann/ComputerPrograms.html, Accessed date: 21 December 2013
Irandoust MA, Priestley K, Sobouti F (2022) High-resolution lithospheric structure of the Zagros collision zone and Iranian Plateau. J Geophys Res: Solid Earth 127(11):e2022JB025009. https://doi.org/10.1029/2022JB025009
Jackson J, McKenzie D (1984) Active tectonics of the Alpine—Himalayan Belt between western Turkey and Pakistan. Geophys J Int 77(1):185–264. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.1984.tb01931.x
Jackson J, Priestley K, Allen M, Berberian M (2002) Active tectonics of the South Caspian Basin. Geophys J Int 148(2):214–245. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-246X.2002.01588.x
Kaviani A, Paul A, Bourova E, Hatzfeld D, Pedersen H, Mokhtari M (2007) A strong seismic velocity contrast in the shallow mantle across the Zagros collision zone (Iran). Geophys J Int 171(1):399–410. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.2007.03535.x
Kaviani A, Paul A, Moradi A, Mai PM, Pilia S, Boschi L, Rümpker G, Lu Y, Tang Z, Sandvol E (2020) Crustal and uppermost mantle shear wave velocity structure beneath the Middle East from surface wave tomography. Geophys J Int 221(2):1349–1365. https://doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggaa075
Kazemnia M, Shirzad T, Shakeri N, Norouzi S, Abdollahi S, Heydarzadeh K, Motlagh SA (2023) Shallow crustal model of the DehDasht in Zagros, Iran, using Rayleigh wave tomography. Phys Earth Planet Inter 334:106972. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pepi.2022.106972
Kennett BLN, Sambridge MS, Williamson PR (1988) Subspace methods for large inverse problems with multiple parameter classes. Geophys J Int 94(2):237–247. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.1988.tb05898.x
Lay T, Wallace TC (1995) Modern global seismology. Elsevier
Levshin AL, Pisarenko V, Pogrebinsky G (1972) On a frequency-time analysis of oscillations. Ann De Geophys 28(2):211–218
Levshin A, Ratnikova L, Berger J (1992) Peculiarities of surface-wave propagation across central Eurasia. Bull Seismol Soc Am 82(6):2464–2493. https://doi.org/10.1785/bssa0820062464
Maggi A, Priestley K (2005) Surface waveform tomography of the Turkish-Iranian plateau. Geophys J Int 160(3):1068–1080. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.2005.02505.x
Maheri-Peyrov M, Ghods A, Abbasi M, Bergman E, Sobouti F (2016) ML shear wave velocity tomography for the Iranian Plateau. Geophys J Int 205(1):179–191. https://doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggv504
Mallat S (1999) A wavelet tour of signal processing. Elsevier
Manaman NS, Shomali H (2010) Upper mantle S-velocity structure and Moho depth variations across Zagros belt, Arabian-Eurasian plate boundary. Phys Earth Planet Inter 180(1–2):92–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pepi.2010.01.011
Masson F, Anvari M, Djamour Y, Walpersdorf A, Tavakoli F, Daignières M, Nankali H, Van Gorp S (2007) Large-scale velocity field and strain tensor in Iran inferred from GPS measurements: new insight for the present-day deformation pattern within NE Iran. Geophys J Int 170(1):436–440. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.2007.03477.x
Mirzaei N, Mengtan G, Yuntai C (1998) Seismic source regionalization for seismic zoning of Iran: major seismotectonic provinces. J Earthquake Prediction Res 7:465–495
Mojarab M, Memarian H, Zare M, Morshedy AH, Pishahang MH (2014) Modeling of the seismotectonic provinces of Iran using the self-organizing map algorithm. Comput Geosci 67:150–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cageo.2013.12.007
Motaghi K, Tatar M, Priestley K (2012a) Crustal thickness variation across the northeast Iran continental collision zone from teleseismic converted waves. J Seismolog 16(2):253–260. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10950-011-9267-2
Motaghi K, Tatar M, Shomali ZH, Kaviani A, Priestley K (2012b) High resolution image of uppermost mantle beneath NE Iran continental collision zone. Phys Earth Planet Inter 208:38–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pepi.2012.07.006
Mottaghi AA, Rezapour M, Korn M (2013) Ambient noise surface wave tomography of the Iranian Plateau. Geophys J Int 193(1):452–462. https://doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggs134
Mousavi N, Ebbing J (2018) Basement characterization and crustal structure beneath the Arabia-Eurasia collision (Iran): a combined gravity and magnetic study. Tectonophysics 731:155–171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2018.03.018
Mousavi N, Fullea J (2020) 3-D thermochemical structure of lithospheric mantle beneath the Iranian plateau and surrounding areas from geophysical–petrological modelling. Geophys J Int 222(2):1295–1315. https://doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggaa262
Mousavi N, Ebbing J, Ebrahimzadeh Ardestani V (2017) Interpretation of structure of lithosphere and crust in Zagros region using modeling of topography, geoid, and potential field data (gravity and magnetic). Sci Q J Geosci 26(103):119–128
Movaghari R, Doloei GJ (2019) 3-D crustal structure of the Iran plateau using phase velocity ambient noise tomography. Geophys J Int 220(3):1555–1568. https://doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggz537
Movaghari R, JavanDoloei G, Yang Y, Tatar M, Sadidkhouy A (2021) Crustal radial anisotropy of the Iran Plateau inferred from ambient noise tomography. J Geophys Res Solid Earth 126(4):e2020JB020236
Namvaran M, Tatar M, MotavalliAnbaran SH (2020) Imaging the 2–D crust and upper mantle structure of the Iranian plateau resolved by potential field and seismic data. Phys Earth Planet Inter 300:106445
Nuttli OW (1973) Seismic wave attenuation and magnitude relations for eastern North America. J Geophyical Res 78:876–885
Pedersen HA, Krüger F (2007) Influence of the seismic noise characteristics on noise correlations in the Baltic shield. Geophys J Int 168(1):197–210. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.2006.03177.x
Pilia S, Jackson JA, Hawkins R, Kaviani A, Ali MY (2020) The southern Zagros collisional orogen: new insights from transdimensional trees inversion of seismic noise. Geophys Res Lett 47(4):e2019GL086258. https://doi.org/10.1029/2019GL086258
Priestley K, Baker C, Jackson J (1994) Implications of earthquake focal mechanism data for the active tectonics of the south Caspian Basin and surrounding regions. Geophys J Int 118(1):111–141. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.1994.tb04679.x
Rahimi-Majd M, Shirzad T, Najafi MN (2022) A self-organized critical model and multifractal analysis for earthquakes in Central Alborz. Iran Sci Rep 12(1):8364. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-12362-7
Rawlinson N (2005) FMST: fast marching surface tomography package–instructions. Res Sch Earth Sci, Aust National Univ, Canberra 29:47
Rawlinson N, Sambridge M (2005) The fast marching method: an effective tool for tomographic imaging and tracking multiple phases in complex layered media. Explor Geophys 36(4):341–350. https://doi.org/10.1071/EG05341
Reilinger R, McClusky S, Vernant P, Lawrence S, Ergintav S, Cakmak R, Ozener H, Kadirov F, Guliev I, Stepanyan R, Nadariya M, Hahubia G, Mahmoud S, Sakr K, ArRajehi A, Paradissis D, Al-Aydrus A, Prilepin M, Guseva T, Evren E, Dmitrotsa A, Filikov SV, Gomez F, Al-Ghazzi R, Karam G (2006) GPS constraints on continental deformation in the Africa-Arabia-Eurasia continental collision zone and implications for the dynamics of plate interactions. J Geophys Res: Solid Earth 111:5. https://doi.org/10.1029/2005JB004051
Rezaeifar M, Kissling E (2020) Regional 3-D lithosphere structure of the northern half of Iran by local earthquake tomography. Geophys J Int 223(3):1956–1972. https://doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggaa431
Ritzwoller MH, Shapiro NM, Levshin AL, Leahy GM (2001) Crustal and upper mantle structure beneath Antarctica and surrounding oceans. J Geophys Res: Solid Earth 106(B12):30645–30670. https://doi.org/10.1029/2001JB000179
Shabanian E, Bellier O, Siame L, Arnaud N, Abbassi MR, Cochemé J-J (2009) New tectonic configuration in NE Iran: active strike-slip faulting between the Kopeh Dagh and Binalud mountains. Tectonics 28:5. https://doi.org/10.1029/2008TC002444
Shad-Manaman N, Shomali H, Koyi H (2011) New constraints on upper-mantle S-velocity structure and crustal thickness of the Iranian plateau using partitioned waveform inversion. Geophys J Int 184(1):247–267
Shafaii Moghadam H, Stern RJ (2015) Ophiolites of Iran: keys to understanding the tectonic evolution of SW Asia: (II) Mesozoic ophiolites. J Asian Earth Sci 100:31–59
Shapiro NM, Singh SK (1999) A systematic error in estimating surface-wave group-velocity dispersion curves and a procedure for its correction. Bull Seismol Soc Am 89(4):1138–1142. https://doi.org/10.1785/bssa0890041138
Shirzad T (2019) Study of fault plane using the interferometry of aftershocks: case study in the Rigan area of SE Iran. Geophys J Int 217(1):190–205. https://doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggz015
Shirzad T, Moradi A (2022) Analysis of the shallow crustal structure of the Bam Fault Zone, Iran, using the surface wave and first-arrival P-wave tomography approaches. Phys Earth Planet Inter 324:106852. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pepi.2022.106852
Shirzad T, Yaminifard F (2020) High resolution upper crustal velocity structure beneath Qeshm Island (SE Zagros) from surface wave, first arrival, and interevent interferometry tomography methods. Phys Earth Planet Inter 308:106569. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pepi.2020.106569
Shirzad T, Shomali ZH, Riahi MA (2013) An application of ambient noise and earthquake tomography in the Rigan area, southeast of Iran. Seismol Res Lett 84(6):1014–1020. https://doi.org/10.1785/0220130044
Shirzad T, Shomali ZH, Naghavi M, Norouzi R (2015) Near-surface VS structure by inversion of surface wave estimated from ambient seismic noise. Near Surface Geophysics 13(5):447–455. https://doi.org/10.3997/1873-0604.2015031
Shirzad T, Riahi M-A, Assumpção MS (2019) Crustal structure of the collision-subduction zone in south of Iran using virtual seismometers. Sci Rep 9(1):10851. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-47430-y
Shirzad T, Shakeri N, Kazemnia Kakhki M, Norouzi S, AbdollahieFard I (2023) Three-dimensional P-wave model of the shallow crustal structure, a complementary method for detecting a trapped hydrocarbon: a case study in the DehDasht region, SW Iran. J Geophys Eng 20(4):621–634. https://doi.org/10.1093/jge/gxad031
Shoja-Taheri J, Niazi M (1981) Seismicity of the Iranian Plateau and bordering regions. Bull Seismol Soc Am 71(2):477–489. https://doi.org/10.1785/bssa0710020477
Shomali ZH, Shirzad T (2015) Crustal structure of Damavand volcano, Iran, from ambient noise and earthquake tomography. J Seismol 19:191–200. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10950-014-9458-8
Snyder DB, Barazangi M (1986) Deep crustal structure and flexure of the Arabian Plate beneath the Zagros collisional mountain belt as inferred from gravity observations. Tectonics 5(3):361–373. https://doi.org/10.1029/TC005i003p00361
Stampfli GM (2000) Tethyan oceans. Geol Soc, London, Spec Publ 173(1):1–23
Stöcklin J (1974) Possible ancient continental margins in Iran. The geology of continental margins, 873–887. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-01141-6_64
Tavakoli F. (2007) Present-day deformation and kinematics of the active faults observed by GPS in the Zagros and east of Iran. Déformationactuelle et cinématique des failles actives observées par GPS dans le Zagros et l’Estiranien Université Joseph-Fourier - Grenoble I]. Insu Univ-savoieConfremo Uga Cnrs Univ-grenoble1 InpgIrsteaUjfIfsttarAgreeniumInrae Uga-epeUsmb-comue Univ-eiffelIfsttar-univeiffel Uga-spao-test. https://theses.hal.science/tel-00285919
Tchalenko JS, Skempton AW (1975) Seismicity and structure of the Kopet Dagh (Iran, U. S. S. R.). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Ser A, Math Phys Sci 278(1275):1–28. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.1975.0019
Teknik V, Ghods A (2017) Depth of magnetic basement in Iran based on fractal spectral analysis of aeromagnetic data. Geophys J Int 209(3):1878–1891. https://doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggx132
Vernant P, Nilforoushan F, Chery J, Bayer R, Djamour Y, Masson F, Nankali H, Ritz J-F, Sedighi M, Tavakoli F (2004) Deciphering oblique shortening of central Alborz in Iran using geodetic data. Earth Planet Sci Lett 223(1–2):177–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2004.04.017
Walker R, Jackson J (2004) Active tectonics and late Cenozoic strain distribution in central and eastern Iran. Tectonics 23:5. https://doi.org/10.1029/2003TC001529
Walker R, Jackson J, Baker C (2004) Active faulting and seismicity of the Dasht-e-Bayaz region, eastern Iran. Geophys J Int 157(1):265–282. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.02179.x
Wells DL, Coppersmith KJ (1994) New empirical relationships among magnitude, rupture length, rupture width, rupture area, and surface displacement. Bull Seismol Soc Am 84(4):974–1002. https://doi.org/10.1785/BSSA0840040974
Wu Z, Chen L, Talebian M, Wang X, Jiang M, Ai Y, Lan H, Gao Y, Khatib MM, Hou G, Chung SL (2021) Lateral structural variation of the lithosphere-asthenosphere system in the Northeastern to Eastern Iranian Plateau and its tectonic implications. J Geophys Res Solid Earth 126(1):e2020JB020256
Xia J, Miller RD, Ivanov J (2007) Sensitivity of high‐frequency Rayleigh‐wave data revisited. In SEG technical program expanded abstracts (1142–1146). https://doi.org/10.1190/1.2792614
Yin X, Xia J, Shen C, Xu H (2014) Comparative analysis on penetrating depth of high-frequency Rayleigh and Love waves. J Appl Geophys 111:86–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jappgeo.2014.09.022
Young MK, Rawlinson N, Arroucau P, Reading AM, Tkalčić H (2011) High-frequency ambient noise tomography of southeast Australia: new constraints on Tasmania’s tectonic past. Geophys Res Lett 38:13. https://doi.org/10.1029/2011GL047971
Zhou Y, Dahlen FA, Nolet G (2004) Three-dimensional sensitivity kernels for surface wave observables. Geophys J Int 158(1):142–168. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.2004.02324.x
Acknowledgements
T.S. thanks the Fundação de Apoio à Universidade de São Paulo, FUSP [project number 3930], and Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP), Sao Paulo, Brazil [grant number 2016/20952-4]. M.K. would like to acknowledge the Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil [with grant number 204.210/2021]. All plots were made using Generic Mapping Tools (GMT), version 6.4.0 (Wessel and Smith, 1998; www.soest.hawaii.edu/gmt, last accessed January 2024). All processing and simulations presented were performed using a cluster system on the Institute of Astronomy, Geophysics and Atmospheric Sciences (IAG; www.iag.usp.br; last accessed January 2024), at University of São Paulo (USP).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Maryam Rezaei Moghadam: conceptualization, methodology, software, formal analysis, investigation, data curation, writing—original draft. Taghi Shirzad: conceptualization, methodology, software, validation, formal analysis, investigation, resources, data curation, writing—original draft and revision, visualization, supervision. Mohsen Kazemnia: methodology, validation, data curation, writing—original draft and revision, visualization. Irfan Ullah: conceptualization, validation, investigation, writing—original draft.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors acknowledge there are no conflicts of interest recorded.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Highlights
• 2D tomographic maps reveal Iran’s crustal structure and fault zones, aiding earthquake risk assessment.
• Shallow sediment thickness influences local surface wave tomography results.
• Tectonic feature borders coincide with the recovered anomalies borders.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Moghadam, M.R., Shirzad, T., Kazemnia, M. et al. Crustal structure of Khorasan, NE Iran, using Rayleigh wave tomography. J Seismol 28, 459–476 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10950-024-10199-3
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10950-024-10199-3