Introduction

The influence of media on the audience has been a longstanding matter of interest (Hardyns et al. 2018; Näsi et al. 2021; Poudel et al. 2020; Salmi et al. 2007; Ullman 1999). Several psychological and social aspects have been examined in the literature, such as the effects of media on mental health, physical and psychological well-being, risk mechanisms, coping strategies, perception, and justice (Besemer et al. 2018; Lee and Waters 2021; Schwartz 2019; Shi et al. 2020; Walsh and O’Connor 2019). Considering the extensive literature, the current research focuses on crime coverage in media content both in online and traditional outlets (i.e. newspapers), and a link between crime reports and public trust and social support of individuals in the context of Northern Cyprus.

Accordingly, this research follows a theoretical framework, which comprehensively analyses the specific content related to the study. The combined premises of cultivation, agenda-setting, and framing theories establish the theoretical framework according to which the current study is conducted. Notably, the aforementioned theories pertain to the context of this study as they encompass the effects of media on behaviour over time, the influence of media agenda on the audience, and the representation and portrayal of media in delivering specific messages. This enables the current study to contribute to the literature by obtaining empirical evidence from people whose first-hand experience is surveyed, and to further investigate crime reports during the COVID-19 pandemic. Accordingly, Northern Cyprus and the specific context of crime-related reports in the media are addressed in this study, since it is a location that can provide a better understanding of how the media approach towards the reporting of crime can affect those within society, due to the small size of the audience with a population of under 400,000 (Northern Cyprus Statistics Institute 2022). Considering the impact of media on psychological and social elements, the study can further contribute to the decisions made regarding how crime is reported in the media.

In this research, the notion of social trust is contextualised as a sensitive matter that can be described as a sense, and cultivated into a worldview that is sceptical and lacks trust. This is embedded in the concept of cultivation theory (Romer et al. 2014; Shanahan and Morgan 1999). This theory addresses exposure to media and negative emotions, such as social/public trust (Potter 1993; Busselle and Van den Bulck 2019; Men et al. 2018; Williams and Fedorowicz 2019). As the exposure prolongs and persistently delivers its messages, it is more likely that cultivated emotions are shaped and behaviour and/or belief of the audience are directed towards the agenda presented by its author. In the current research, this theory pertains to crime and its reports in the media (online and traditional) as it incorporates factors such as communication, trust, and linkages between government and people (Men et al. 2018). The present research argues that negative impacts on the psychological well-being of citizens are connected to the unethical reporting of crime, particularly in a small society. This study specifically analyses the ethical requirements within both national and international media standards to protect the presumption of innocence, that is, not to disclose explicitly or by implication that a defendant is guilty of a crime prior to its declaration by the court, and to refrain from exposing relatives of suspects within media content unless they are related to the act and are necessary for the correct understanding of the incident (Northern Cyprus Media Ethics Board, n.d.). In addition, this research argues that during and after the global pandemic of COVID-19, the unethical reporting of crime within media has hindered individuals’ psychological wellbeing due to various challenges, such as sense of community (Sousan et al. 2022), loneliness (El Telyani et al. 2021), distrust (Ramkissoon, 2021), and work-life conflict (Khawand and Zargar 2022; Zakhem et al. 2022). The significance of the study is the focus on the effects of the media’s approach toward crime in a small society, where such reports can easily and significantly disrupt individuals’ lives. Thus, the complex nature of media and its effects on society within the scope of psychology as a scientific domain is addressed in the current study. Accordingly, this research seeks to provide a better understanding of crime-related reports in media and its psychological implications in a small society, with broader implications for ethical journalism.

Literature and theoretical setting

Within the context of media and crime, media content can inherently influence trust due to its connection with several factors, such as victimisation, fear, anxiety, and stress. Notably, the literature shows that such elements are powerful and can influence all societal groups, regardless of their age (from children to youth and adults) (Krause 1986; Näsi et al. 2021; Salmi et al. 2007). The importance of coverage of crime in the media and its effects on the perception of citizens is linked to a number of aspects. Specifically, crime coverage in the media and its effects on the perception of the audience affects how extensively the public recognises criminal activity and, consequently, the determination of crime as a social problem. This is further influential on social support and the justice system as it affects policies and attitudes towards crime (Enns 2016; Salmi et al. 2007; Shi et al. 2020). Attitudes can be changed through high societal salience and media coverage, as within the premise of cultivation theory (Gerbner et al. 1977). In this respect, emotions, attitudes, beliefs, and behaviours can be shaped through exposure to media and its narrative. As such, the theory details the society itself and its cultural context by incorporating an evaluation of media organisations, the production of media and content, and the influence of media on the audience (Shrum 2017).

It is expected that the aforementioned traits can be even more striking with the limitation of social interactions that occurred due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Within the literature, studies exist to examine the effect of media on social factors such as anxiety, public trust, public perceptions towards the government, and risk management during times of crisis (Kaya 2020; Konstantinou et al. 2021; Lynch and Rice 2022; Petridou et al. 2020; Volkan and Volkan 2020). The current study therefore follows a new line of research that focuses on media and its link to society in the aftermath of the global pandemic (e.g. Busselle and Van den Bulck 2019; Näsi et al. 2021; Poudel et al. 2020; Ramkissoon 2021). Both online media (internet news channels, blogs, and social media) and traditional media (television and printed newspapers) are important in the degree of trust and social support, as psychological elements, among individuals (Näsi et al. 2021; Schwartz 2019; Wash and O’Connor 2019). As referred to within the concept of cultivation theory, emotions and feelings towards certain topics can be enhanced as time spent on media is increased (e.g. TV or social media), as occurred during the pandemic. This in turn can bias perspectives in favour of the narrative. This is due to the effective and influential storytelling prowess of media (Shrum 2017). There are different domains, which are linked to the power of media that relate to government, surveillance, risk management, and social control (e.g. discrimination and social profiling) (Walsh and O’Connor 2019). This implies that narratives and messages in the media can have a bias or a particular orientation that guides society in specific directions.

This study uses the premise of cultivation theory to address the case of Northern Cyprus as it entails elements appropriate to the current context (i.e. trust, support, and negative psychological factors linked to the reporting of crime approaches to reporting within the media). In this respect, extensive research on media adherence (online newspapers) to ethical principles within Northern Cyprus reported that over 60% of media content contained breaches of ethics, including the presumption of innocence, privacy and confidentiality. It was also noted that a considerable number of media reports (approximately 30%) were related to crime (i.e. drugs) (Dolunay and Kasap 2021). Similar results were noted in a study addressing online media in Northern Cyprus in the context of ethical media coverage of a particular crime (Asit 2019). Following what has been mentioned, the current research focuses on crime, its communication through media, and its relation to individuals within society, contributing to the understanding of psychological outcomes. The importance of this subject is increased due to the compounding psychological pressures that societies have endured throughout the pandemic.

Referring to the Agenda-Setting theory (McCombs and Shaw 1993; McCombs et al. 2014), the narrative generated within the media reflects in the beliefs and behaviours of its audience, highlighting the connection that media has to the psychology of individuals. In this research, it is hypothesised that the salience of crimes related to drugs reported in the local media of Northern Cyprus in a bold manner, leaves not only the individual mentioned vulnerable (often with a photo and a tagline), but it can create bias in social trust and support. This is further linked to the Framing theory explaining media and changing audiences’ beliefs and perspectives through a set of frames (Goffman 1974). This theory states that individuals use their unique frameworks to interpret external information (i.e. media). In this regard, frames are used in the media content (text, audio or visual) to deliver specified messages to the consumer. These messages are then interpreted based on expectations and the extent to which the individual is familiar with the subject.

In the context of framing theory, three crucial aspects are used within the content analysis stage of this research. These are information value, framing, and prominence, regarded as the multimodal approach developed by Kress and Van Leeuwen (2020). These aspects describe the media content in terms of placement, display, position, language, sense of belongingness, continuity/rhythm, colours, sizes, and other visual and cultural elements. Notably, the connection between these elements and the perception of the audience has been reported in the literature by numerous studies (e.g. Kachorsky and Reid 2020, Kachorsky and Perez 2021; Nørgaard 2018; Serafini and Reid 2019; Van Leeuwen 2021). This highlights the adequacy of the framing theory within the current context to elaborate on the status of media and the approach towards crime coverage, providing a better understanding regarding the case at hand.

It is hypothesised in this research that local media can lead to changes in psychological and social aspects of the suspect and their relatives/acquaintances due to the small number of people and close acquaintances that occur within small social communities (e.g. social embarrassment). The pandemic, having lowered social well-being, also influences the livelihood and other social elements of mentioned individuals. Taking the published media within Northern Cyprus as a case study, it can be observed that there is a general non-compliance with ethical codes of conduct within journalism, particularly relating to the presumption of innocence and crime (Saragih 2021; Seoane-Pérez and Valera-Ordaz 2021). This affects the right to a fair trial. While this principle exists to provide protection to the suspect or defendant, exposure to the media can lead to its elimination. Further, anonymity, confidentiality, and other ethical aspects affect the individual and their acquaintances or relatives. Crime reporting is focused in the current research as an influential matter regarding society’s view and behaviour towards the subject. This can be linked to elements such as trust, support, and challenge towards the judicial and media (online or printed) systems. Moreover, this issue has been witnessed worldwide irrespective of geography or levels of development (economic or industrial) (Ashworth 2006; Robis 2015; Salter 2013; Tanoos 2016). Hence, through sharing media content that does not follow the ethics of a fair trial, the potential influence of media on the psychological well-being of society can be characterised and, further, can be examined by obtaining in-depth data from the experiences of affected individuals.

While a limited number of studies currently exist examining the subject of media in Northern Cyprus overall (e.g. Kalkan et al. 2015; Volkan and Volkan 2020), the existing studies do not emphasise crime and its psychosocial impacts. This further drives the conduct of this study, as crime-related research emphasising psychological elements is scarce in the literature, particularly within the valuative context of small communities. Following what was noted, the current research aims to investigate crime reports during the COVID-19 Pandemic. The specific notion of this research is to address several gaps in the literature that are namely, (a) relatively few studies addressing drug crime in media, whereas the conduct of this study can provide a better understanding by thoroughly examining the subject in a small island (i.e. Northern Cyprus); (b) lack of sufficient evidence from the experience of specific samples (i.e. families of detainees) which is observed in the current literature. The present research collects empirical data from individuals closely associated with the media content, which provides a better understanding of its effects on individuals; (c) expansion of existing literature by examining the case of a small Mediterranean island that can improve the understanding of media among societies that are smaller in size; and (d) contributing to the literature of psychology through enhancement of understanding on theoretical and practical domains that are related to the subject of media and its effects on society.

In line with the aims and scope mentioned above, this research poses a number of questions that are namely; (a) how is the crime-related news covered in the local outlets? (b) are ethical means of reporting complied with in terms of crime reports? (c) what have been the experiences of people involved with crime reports in a small society? and (d) did the COVID-19 pandemic have any effect on social elements (i.e., anxiety, public trust, and social support)?

The specific criteria, procedures, methodology, and approaches followed to explore this matter adequately are set out in the following sections.

Methodology

To achieve the abovementioned aims, a specific theoretical setting is deployed in two stages that are namely (a) content and discourse analysis and (b) thematic network approach. The current research is limited by the scarce literature of this specific subject. Therefore, the first stage enables the research to establish the context of the research, in which crime reports in the media are analysed, leading to the understanding of the media approach. This can be interpreted regarding its impacts on society, particularly those directly or closely involved with the case. The second stage employs semi-structured interviews with several participants that match the study’s inclusion criteria. Social elements are used as an anchor for establishing the theme of the interviews. This combined approach is deployed to thoroughly examine crime coverage and its psychological and social influences in a small Mediterranean island.

A – content and discourse analyses

The framing theory is used for content analysis and understanding the media and its approach towards crime coverage, which includes a number of elements. Three (3) of the most read printed media online and three (3) internet newspapers were analysed. Due to the sensitivity of the subject at hand, the names of the media organisations remain confidential to the authors. To select the outlets, the researchers reviewed and selected the sample media for data collection using the following criteria: (1) These media outlets produce original but also share replicated content on a local scale, and focus on crime-related subjects, which fits the scope of this research. The online content was considerably more, which, combined with print material, provided a reasonable amount of data for analysis (a total of 507 articles). (2) Data from January 2019 to January 2020 was examined regarding crime, in which “drugs” were the primary concern, as the suspects are shown in the media with taglines indicative of ‘serious’ crime (Northern Cyprus Supreme Court General Secretariat, 2019). This criterion was used to include the outlets which reported crimes in their coverage of local news, and where elements relevant to the current context were existent. (3) The presumption of innocence was selected as a further criterion as it measures whether there is ethical production of media content. Thus, it feasibly indicates negative connotations of both media content and the persons and events described therein. Thus, those outlets carry a capacity to affect the social and psychological status of the individual (i.e. through the exposure of names, jobs, photos, described notes on personal matters, and newspaper taglines that prompted the notion of crime) prior to any verdict presented by the court. Additionally, a number of aspects were considered for discourse and content analyses, as set out below.

The research adopted both content and discourse analysis to present a detailed and accurate picture of the published opinion of drug crime in local media. Within content analysis, each news article was analysed for the existence of certain criteria - namely picture, name, reference to past conviction, and reference to nationality; due to their cumulative capacity for presenting a negative view of the defendant, ergo breaching the presumption of innocence. Visual elements, including the lack of visuals, representative visuals and use of visuals of the defendant with or without pixelation were included. Names were analysed based on their description (full or initials) and identifiable characteristics. For each factor, a sliding scale was generated indicative of increased potential to breach the presumption of innocence. For example, representation of a neutral picture carries less negative representation and presents more ethically as opposed to visuals showing the entire face of the defendant with front/back restraints clearly shown.

Discourse analysis was developed in line with the importance of linguistic evaluation and assessment of various aspects of the text as the tool that presents the opinion/information. Its evaluation assists in discovering meaning, and thus, understanding the capacity and influence of that which is being presented. Furthermore, such evaluation provides an understanding of the overall moral/ideological stance within which the text is moulded (van Dijk, 1995; 2015). The structure of words and the format and content of the selected sentences were analysed from lexical, pragmatic, grammatical, and rhetorical mannerisms. Other categories were included that are namely textual narrative, angle and manner of account of events, syntax and positioning of the subject within the text, use of active/passive voice, sequencing of events, causality (cause and effect), descriptions (including identifications or naming), use of repetition for emphasis, relationships and terminology (legitimatisation, use of metaphors and descriptive elements, conveyance of emotion and credibility including reference to authority). All analyses of the text, both at the macro and micro levels, were undertaken in accordance with the text as it appears in the Turkish language. Consequently, analysis at both macro and micro levels was undertaken (the latter through analysis of sample sentences) for 17 articles. At the macro level, the thematic and semantic units of the articles were analysed by identifying and evaluating the headlines, lead, spot and body of the select articles. Particular elements breaching the presumption of innocence and thus constituting a breach of ethics were identified. The coding process was deployed by the first and second authors using the aforementioned textual narrative and structural format using NVivo software version 1.0.

B – interview procedures

Based on the establishment of negative influences of crime reports and coverage in the media of Northern Cyprus, this research involved a total of 38 semi-structured interviews to provide an in-depth understanding of the current subject. Interviewees were asked about their experiences as representatives directly engaged with the issue (Khawand and Zargar 2022; Starks and Trinidad 2007).

The questions were categorised based on three main aspects, namely, (a) the initial effect of media exposure, (b) the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, and (c) the social and psychological effects in the aftermath of the news report. Cultivation theory is used to address the notions of public trust, social support, and anxiety and stress caused by the media, which are further used to extract more data from participants’ experiences. The interviews were held online through video calls during December 2021 and February 2022, each lasting between 45–70 min. Through a purposive sampling technique, a few individuals directly affected by crime reports were contacted. Using the established network and community, participants were asked to provide and introduce new contacts that could potentially fit the research narrative through the snowball technique. Due to the sensitivity of the subject and the relation of the participants to criminal cases, details on anonymity, confidentiality, and consent (verbal and written) were provided to the participants, and their willingness, availability, and voluntary participation were emphasised. The data was recorded during the session, transcribed, and then the original data was deleted. Participants were asked to revise the transcription and add to their responses (if willing). Following ethical means of conduct, respondents’ identifiers were not collected nor recorded during the interviews. Moreover, recorded interviews were deleted to ensure the anonymity of the data. Each participant was informed that they could withdraw from the research during or after the interview and, that their data would then be removed and deleted. The contact details and phone numbers of participants gathered during the research process were deleted after the finalisation of the data analysis. Those participants who wished to have a copy of the results were sent a final draft of the research through private means.

Participants’ ages ranged between 28 and 47, with the majority (27/38) of participants being male. All participants were directly or indirectly affected by the crime report in the media due to their connection and contact (whether family or friends) with the alleged suspect. Three participants were physically present with the suspect at the time of arrest and were also exposed within the media coverage. Seven participants were mentioned directly or indirectly in the news reports, which made them appropriate samples for the research. The other participants were close relatives or friends of the reported suspects. Due to the sensitivity mentioned above, no identifying data was obtained in order to provide confidentiality and anonymity of the obtained data. Based on theoretical setting, sample criteria, quality of data and the analytical approach, the context of research was followed and maintained throughout the process (Khawand and Zargar 2022). While the first author conducted interviews, the third and fourth authors supervised the process to ensure subject and narrative adequacy, and recorded the sessions respectively. The coding process was deployed by the first and second author and the procedure was discussed amongst all authors to ensure consensus on the framework, reports, and interpretations (intercoder agreement coefficient = 0.88).

The extracted themes and keywords from the analytical procedure represent coded data (i.e., crime, media coverage, perspectives, experiences, and psychological well-being). The theories used in the research were the basis for creating initial codes. This established the base model for approaching the gathered content, as keywords and key terminologies were coded alongside synonyms or similar words. Based on the initial codes, themes were drawn from the collected data. MAXQDA software was used and the Thematic Network approach was undertaken to yield adequate explanations of the data (Fischer 2009; Khawand and Zargar 2022).

Results

As it pertains to the content analysis, the selected media outlets were qualified regarding the aspects mentioned above that pertain to the context and aims of the current research. In this regard, the authors considered various elements among the numerous media outlets covering local news. The selected sources contain crime and drug-centric reports and entail different elements that portray crime in a manner that may not reflect realities. The results of content analysis showed several mentions of nationality (67) and past convictions (30), indicating that discrimination or social profiling was reported in the analysed content. It was further noticed that together with the text, 232 of 507 articles contain a picture representing handcuffs or a defendant/suspect in handcuff restraints; 191 of these articles specifically contained pictures of the defendant of the case in handcuffs, with their face in full view (without pixelation). The extent of usage of these pictures per media outlet varied between 15–48 percent. Articles accompanied by pictures of the defendant(s)/suspect(s) full face are not only unethical but can be discriminatory towards the individual and their relatives (Martin 2018; Powell et al. 2018). This is thus a display of a notion of wrongdoing and guilt to the reader, and thus, carries the capacity to affect their judgment (Fullerton and Patterson 2021; Zloteanu et al. 2019). One outlet showed the pictures pixelated without any significant identifiers, and pictures were intentionally manipulated to follow ethical principles. The existence of and use of the defendant’s name within content varied among outlets. Names (initials or full name) and personal identifying indicators were reported 468 times, with demographic identifiers such as age, gender, place of residence, occupation, and sectors detailed in 309 of the 507 articles. This is arguably important as, in a small society, publicizing such data can negatively impact the individual accused of the crime and the social and communal groups they are connected to. This is further linked to attitudes and psychological well-being through the premises of cultivation theory (Couttenier et al. 2019; Pollock et al. 2022; Ricciardelli et al. 2020). Overall, the results of content analysis represent the outcome as a response to the research questions (a) how is the crime-related news covered in local outlets? (b) are ethical means of conduct complied with in terms of crime reports?

The results of discourse analysis show that there is an emphasis in two media outlets towards the portrayal of drugs as a significant widespread issue, that drug-crimes are occurring in a prevalent fashion in the country and that citizens would not suspect this at first glance or have knowledge of their occurrence. This further legitimizes police undertakings and operations by increasing the sense of crime (Hassan 2018; Lombardi 2018). It is argued in this study that such approaches can affect individual stress and social support, particularly during the pandemic, as well as presenting a threat both physically and psychologically (Khawand and Zargar 2022). Many article contents are generated from the information obtained from the police commissioner’s press bulletin or the police interpretation of events disclosed in court, legitimising the facts presented. While some articles do not present the defendants in a blameless manner overall, use of the word ‘youth’ presents a sympathetic stance implying less culpability on account of their age, playing into the stereotype and assumption that younger persons are more inexperienced and more likely to make mistakes. The use of the word ‘caught’ in the headline as opposed to ‘arrest’ heightens the wrongdoing on the part of the defendants as it gives an impression that there was action of evasion suppressed by the police authorities. Details have been added to a number of newspaper articles to elaborate events and present the defendants in a particular view. These include the specific medical and street names of substances (e.g. weed and cocaine), descriptions of substance amounts, details on defendant’s clothing and use of adjectives. These appear to be an intentional inclusion, as the articles can remain factually correct without their presence. Importantly, allegations were presented as facts, which breaches the presumption of innocence. In general, results of discourse analysis respond to the research questions (a) how is the crime-related news covered in local outlets? (b) are ethical means of conduct complied with in terms of crime reports?

Interview analysis

The extracted themes, keywords and responses from the analytical procedure are shown in Table 1, representing coded data (i.e., crime, media coverage, perspectives, experiences, and psychological well-being). In summary, the data indicates that individuals associated negative experiences following media commentary, particularly indicating a negative effect on the social support they received, increased social avoidance and decreased social trust, negative connotations with respect to innocence, increased stress and occupational disruption. These results generate response to the research questions (c) what has been the experiences of people involved with crime reports in a small society? (d) did the occurrence of COVID-19 have any effect on social elements (i.e. anxiety, public trust, and social support)?

Table 1 Interview Analysis.
Full size table

Discussion

With regards to the question of how the crime-related news was portrayed in local media outlets, the results of the present work indicate that the published opinion on drug-related crime in the newspapers of Northern Cyprus, in both internet and print media online, carry a negative depiction of crime overall. Addressing whether ethical means of conduct were complied with, of the four criteria analysed overall for content, research showed that two (pictures and name of the defendant) were factors that breached the presumption of innocence. Content and discourse analyses showed several breaches of ethical principles among the media outlets of Northern Cyprus. In this respect, the current study refers to the cultivation theory, which in this case, can yield societal outcomes that can negatively impact those that are relatives or close to the alleged suspect. As noted in this research, social support can be diminished due to the influences of media and its coverage of crime (Hardyns et al. 2018; Näsi et al. 2021; Poudel et al. 2020). This is important as it pertains to various challenges for the individuals involved while inducing fear and false judgment regarding crime and its level in society. It is argued that a change in publication in favour of ethics can thus yield positive outcomes on individuals in society through enhanced communication, discourse, and accurate information that can aid in developing judicial systems. Compliance of media with rules and regulations can be an asset in generating an audience that also follows guidelines and policies ethically. In this sense, the research emphasises the presumption of innocence, which, as an ethical aspect, should be considered by the media until the trial is finalised and forensics or other official reports have confirmed the components of the case. This will further help the suspect maintain anonymity and avoid exposure to media that can bias society’s judgment of an individual, especially on a small island. While the number of articles analysed were considered sufficient in number, they represent a small cohort of the available media within Northern Cyprus. This limits the capacity of the present work in providing data from which generalised results can be drawn. All media outlets and specifically social media channels that cover crime-related content and news should thus be included in future studies to overcome this limitation.

With regards to the question addressing the experiences of people involved with crime reports in a small community setting such as Northern Cyprus, it can be seen that social trust was notably diminished in the aftermath of media reports related to crime, as noted in Table 1, where individuals reported negative reactions and interactions with their communities. This is regarded as an important influence of media, especially in a small society where news can spread fast and lead to negative reactions. Due to this, a high level of stress was experienced by individuals related to the case (not suspects) and their families simply due to their relationship with the suspects. However, qualitative data obtained from a small sample of the population presents a limitation to the study as it effects its capacity to be representative. The related data can be strengthened in future studies by including quantitative analysis obtained from a larger sample size. The present study was further limited through lack of access to suspects themselves and thus was not able to obtain data on direct experience of crime coverage first-hand. This could be addressed by extending the study and seeking participation of such individuals. In addition, a comparative analysis of the data obtained from other countries of similar scale, not addressed in the current study, would also strengthen the findings. This would also address a further limitation of the current study pertaining to the cultural differences and associated outcomes it may have on individual experiences. It should be noted that the current study has not based its methodological approach on earlier research as there are a limited number of studies linking media coverage of crime and its psychological effects in Northern Cyprus. This research increases primary data in the literature of media from the particular angle of crime coverage in Northern Cyprus. This expands the prior studies in this context (e.g. Kaya 2020; Konstantinou et al. 2021; Lynch and Rice 2022; Petridou et al. 2020; Volkan and Volkan 2020), including methodology, and thus can be taken as a basis for future studies and undertakings.

In examining whether the COVID-19 pandemic affected social elements, the pandemic was reported as providing data to show increased stress and anxiety. Furthermore, adverse effects relating to social support and trust were observed. The lockdowns implemented during the pandemic negatively affected social support through feelings of isolation and, as a result, limited support from their immediate community. While there are a number of studies that show similar results (e.g. Lee and Waters 2021; Schwartz 2019; Shi et al. 2020; Walsh and O’Connor 2019), this study contributes to the current understanding of media and its implications on psychological wellbeing in a small society. Lack of direct interaction and the difficulties existing in the ability to provide accurate information through digital communication methods during the lockdown (in comparison to face-to-face interactions) lead to decrease in trust. This highly influences psychological well-being, as is under evaluation in the current research (Eden et al. 2020; McNaughton-Cassill 2001; Mheidly and Fares 2020). Since the study was completed during the pandemic period, there is a requirement to undertake longitudinal studies in the future to generate data that could show differences and/or changes after the pandemic.

The media in Northern Cyprus and decision-makers in the field can benefit from these findings to reform their coverage of crime with the aim of enhancing social trust and support, while promoting justice, ethics, and well-being in the society. Social avoidance was noted in the results, which addresses embarrassment and isolation that can further negatively affect the psychological well-being of individuals in society (Näsi et al. 2021; Poudel et al. 2020; Ramkissoon 2021; Shrum 2017). When proof of innocence is difficult and a challenge, this matter becomes more vital as it leads to loneliness that can hinder an individual’s life. Lastly, jobs were lost due to reports in the media that contained identifiers. The persons affected were not suspects but were merely related to suspects allegedly involved in crime. This has a significant impact on the livelihood of these individuals as their finances and social status can be negatively impacted due to unemployment. Considering the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, unemployment is a critical factor that had direct influences on the psychological wellbeing of these individuals.

Conclusions

In evaluating how crime is reported in Northern Cyprus and its associated effects on individuals, the results of the present study indicate that crime reports in media have negative implications on experiences of trust and social support. The study identifies that this is due to the unethical approach in media that leads to negative influences on psychosocial parameters, and that uncertain life experiences, such as the pandemic, merely present as factors that enhance the negative psychosocial effects of the unethical approach of media. This study therefore recommends that media outlets undertake a different approach regarding compliance and fulfilment of ethics, particularly when reporting crimes related to drugs; and that reporters bear in mind the potential effects that reporting can have on the wellbeing of individuals within society through the enhancement of content showing support, trust-building, and reducing negative outcomes.