Introduction

The number of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander PhD scholars in Australian universities is increasing, with a total of 586 out of 58,110 (1%) current doctoral scholars (by research) in Australia (Australian Government Department of Education, Skills and Employment, 2022). While that number remains well below population parity (1758), and despite a history of exclusion and an ongoing privileging of Western knowledge systems, IndigenousFootnote 1 PhD scholars are making their mark on the academy. As a growing cohort, they are having an influence on both the nature of the research being undertaken and the broader knowledge production practices including methodological approaches to that research (Moreton-Robinson et al., 2020; Trudgett et al., 2016). Their engagement with the university environment is also driving changes within university systems and processes, including how faculties and departments respond to student needs and expectations, and the models of scaffolding that are made available throughout the PhD journey (Andrews et al., 2023; Wilson & Wilks, 2015).

In this paper, we explore the ways in which Indigenous doctoral research scholars are working at what Martin Nakata terms the “cultural interface” in higher education or “the intersection of the Western and Indigenous domains” (Nakata, 2002, p. 285, 2007b). Using Indigenous Standpoint Theory, this research privileges Indigenous voices and perspectives to highlight the ways Indigenous PhD scholars are forging their own paths within western academic environments to advance Indigenous cultural knowledges and practices (Foley, 2003; Moreton-Robinson, 2013; Nakata, 2007a; Rigney, 1999). Drawing on in-depth interviews with Indigenous PhD scholars working in the field of health and a qualitative survey of doctoral Supervisors and Advisory Committee Chairs of Indigenous PhD scholars in health disciplines, this paper expands on the growing literature that evidences the transformative resistance strategies of Indigenous people operating within university settings. Acknowledging the burdens that Indigenous people bear within higher education institutions and noting that there is still a long way to go for universities to be culturally safe and inclusive places, this study was conducted with an emphasis on strength-based approaches. Throughout the paper, we use the term scholars instead of students to acknowledge the breadth of expertise, lived experience, and depth of knowledge that Indigenous people bring to their PhD.

Background: Indigenous doctoral education in Australia

Australian universities, like those in other colonized locations, have played active roles in colonialism, contributing to the “othering” of Indigenous people through knowledge production and dissemination based on Western epistemological and ontological foundations (González & Colangelo, 2010; Ma Rhea & Russell, 2012; Moreton-Robinson, 2005). Indigenous Australians have been systematically excluded from higher education institutions and the academy. Indigenous knowledges have been actively appropriated and exploited, or dismissed and devalued, according to their worth within Western knowledge systems (Morgan, 2003). While discriminatory education policies continued into the 1960s, access to higher education for Indigenous Australians has improved, albeit slowly, through dedicated activist interventions and responding federal government reviews and initiatives (Australian Commonwealth Government, 1989; Bradley et al., 2008; Behrendt et al., 2012; Wilson & Wilks, 2015).

Targeted strategies have contributed to cultivating the accessibility and inclusiveness of universities through initiatives across curriculum content and design, research, student recruitment and support, and an increased Indigenous workforce (Indigenous Higher Education Advisory Council, 2011; Universities Australia, 2011; Indigenous Higher Education Advisory Council, 2016; Universities Australia, 2017, 2022; Coates et al., 2021). This has resulted in a significant increase in Indigenous student numbers in higher education from just a few in the 1960s (Wilson & Wilks, 2015) to 22,935 (1.4% of the total student cohort) in 2020, although population parity (3%) still remains out of reach (Australian Government Department of Education, Skills and Employment, 2022). Despite the gains made, the colonial legacies embedded within higher education institutions, including the history of exclusion and the ongoing privileging of Western epistemologies, continue to make universities challenging places, especially for Australian Indigenous PhD scholars (Barney, 2013, 2016; Hutchings et al., 2019, p. 250; Trudgett, 2013; Trudgett et al., 2016).

International research has shown that Indigenous postdoctoral scholars continue to experience racism and discrimination through negative stereotypes and a sense of alienation; that they engage with an institutional support environment that remains culturally inadequate or inappropriate; the cultural and family demands they experience during their course of study outweigh that of their non-Indigenous counterparts; and, significantly, many PhD Supervisors lack the necessary knowledge of Indigenous research methodologies and practice to adequately support Indigenous PhD scholars (Bancroft, 2013; Barney, 2013; Bodkin-Andrews & Craven, 2013; Grant & McKinley, 2011; Hutchings et al., 2019, p. 250; McKinley et al., 2011; Trudgett, 2013; Trudgett et al., 2016). This all amounts to a colonial burden that impacts on the experience of Indigenous PhD scholars in the academy (Povey et al., 2022a; Walters et al., 2019). Many of these experiences are echoed across undergraduate, postgraduate, and postdoctoral cohorts, as well as with Indigenous faculty, exposing the legacy of the disregard toward Indigenous ways of knowing, being, and doing within university environments (Castagno et al., 2022; Povey et al., 2022a; Walters et al., 2019). Morgan, reflecting on what it takes for an Indigenous person to thrive in the university, said that they had “little choice but to participate in research and teaching programs that either devalue or do not recognize their cultural identities” (Morgan, 2003, p. 36).

Many of the themes identified here are reflected in the data we collected from Indigenous PhD scholars and their Supervisors. However, another story also emerged through our research which shows that Indigenous PhD scholars are carving a space within the academy that is shifting the academic terrain and enriching research processes. The shift is not only occurring in the ways that scholars engage with university systems and its support frameworks, but in terms of what is being researched, and importantly, how that research is being conducted (Hogarth, 2022). These findings support a growing body of work that points to the transformative resistance strategies being employed by Indigenous people within university settings that are not only challenging systemic barriers but also indigenizing the ways things are being done in the academy (Castagno et al., 2022; Gallop & Bastien, 2016; Johnson et al., 2017; Povey et al., 2022a; Walters et al., 2019).

Indigenous standpoint theory at the cultural interface

In order to participate in high educational pursuits, Indigenous PhD scholars must engage in, what Martin Nakata describes as, the “cultural interface” or “the intersection of the Western and Indigenous domains” (Nakata, 2002, p. 285). It is, he explains, “the place where we live and learn, the place that conditions our lives, the place that shapes our futures and, more to the point, the place where we are active agents in our own lives – where we make our decisions – our life world” (Nakata, 2002, p. 285). Engaging at the interface of Indigenous and Western knowledge systems is not a passive engagement, he contends, in which the constraints of the place are accepted. It is in fact the contrary, in which “rejection, resistance, subversiveness, pragmatism, ambivalence, accommodation, particularization, cooperation” are all evident in the constant negotiations that take place in this nexus (Nakata, 2002, p. 285). Building on the work of Foley (2003) and Rigney (1999) about how this engagement can be theorized, Nakata expands on the conceptualization of Indigenous Standpoint Theory. “How” he asks, “are Indigenous students, academics and researchers in the disciplines to navigate the complexities of Indigenous experience within such contested spaces?” (Nakata, 2007a, p. 213). Distinguishing it from a “simple reflection of experience,” he argues that an Indigenous Standpoint “has to be produced” (Nakata, 2007a, p. 214). It is, he elaborates, “a distinct form of analysis” that “is itself both a discursive construction and an intellectual device to persuade others and elevate what might not have been a focus of attention by others” (Nakata, 2007a, p. 214). Emerging from standpoint theories more broadly (Harding, 2003), Indigenous Standpoint Theory acknowledges the subjectivity of the researcher and the influence this has on the way they conduct their research. More specifically, however, it is premised on the recognition that Indigenous knowledges have been marginalized within the academy and advances a discursive method of inquiry that prioritizes Indigenous ways of being, doing, and knowing within it (Coates et al., 2023; Nakata, 2007a).

As a practice, or method of inquiry, Nakata sets out three principles that are central to an Indigenous Standpoint. Firstly, that it is important to acknowledge that Indigenous people “are entangled in a very contested knowledge space at the Cultural Interface” (Nakata, 2007a, p. 215). Secondly, that Indigenous peoples’ agency is framed within the “limits and possibilities” of this contested space, and thirdly, that the tension this creates should be recognized as having implications on the physical experience and have an influence on what is said or left unsaid (Nakata, 2007a, p. 216). All this, says Nakata, amounts to theorizing “knowledge from a particular and interested position,” recognizing that “I have knowledge of my experience at the interface and can forge a critical standpoint … to make better arguments in relation to my position within knowledge and in relation to other communities of ‘knowers’” (Nakata, 2007a, pp. 215–216).

With a critical mass of Indigenous people enrolling in and completing their doctoral studies, the understanding of the cultural interface and Indigenous Standpoint Theory provides a useful frame with which to consider how Indigenous students are navigating their PhD journeys and the contribution they are making to culturally inclusive and informed knowledge and knowledge practices within university environments. While the number of studies examining the experience of Indigenous Australian scholars undertaking PhDs is increasing (Barney, 2013; Bodkin-Andrews & Craven, 2013; Oliver et al., 2016; Trudgett, 2008, 2009, 2011), this paper responds to the call for more research to be undertaken (Moodie et al., 2018; Trudgett, 2013, p. 140) and contributes to the growing international conversation about the impact Indigenous people are having on research, research practices, and systems supports in higher education institutions.

Methods

This research project is Indigenous-led (authors one and two), and along with our non-Indigenous colleague (author three), the research was undertaken through a qualitative approach informed by Indigenous Standpoint Theory that privileges Indigenous voices and worldviews (Denzin & Lincoln, 2008; Foley, 2003; Kovach, 2009; Nakata, 2007a; Rigney, 1999; Yunkaporta, 2019). The authors recognize that both researchers and participants play an important role in the production of knowledge (Martin, 2003; Moreton-Robinson, 2013; Nakata, 2007a, b) and that Indigenous knowledges and standpoints are valuable sources for innovative systems thinking and change (Foley, 2003; Martin, 2003; S. Wilson, 2008; Yunkaporta & Moodie, 2021). Centering the voices of Indigenous people is foundational to this approach, and to better understand the place and experience of Indigenous PhD scholars within the academy, we conducted nine in-depth interviews with current Indigenous PhD scholars in the health sciences (Trudgett et al., 2016). We also invited academic staff who were Supervisors of, and/or the Academic Committee Chair for, an Indigenous PhD scholar in the health sciences to participate in a qualitative online survey for the purposes of incorporating a broader view of the experience of Indigenous PhD scholars as well as the systemic environment they are working within. To ensure the project was appropriate and responsive to the needs of Indigenous people within the academy, the authors sought prior review of, and input into, the research design from a non-participating Indigenous PhD student and an Indigenous Professor (Foley, 2003; Martin, 2003). Ethics approval was granted by the Human Research Ethics Committee of The University of Melbourne (Ethics ID Number: 20368).

Indigenous PhD scholars were recruited through email invitation. Qualitative interviews of approximately an hour were conducted in-person or via phone/Zoom by author two to ensure a culturally safe, familiar, and nonintrusive method (Bessarab & Ng’andu, 2010; Povey et al., 2022b). The interviews included questions about their journey into a PhD, their research topic, methodological approach, and their experience of being an Indigenous researcher. PhD participants were also asked to reflect on the nuances of navigating the institutional environment, the support systems they accessed, their supervisory experience, and the impact that increasing numbers of Indigenous PhD scholars will have on the academy. PhD participants could also comment freely about anything further they wished to discuss. In recognition of principles of Indigenous data sovereignty, the recordings of the interviews were transcribed professionally and provided back to the PhD participants for their verification and records (Tahu Kukutai & John Taylor, 2016; Walter et al., 2021).

Eighteen Supervisors and/or Academic Chairs of Indigenous PhD candidates undertook the qualitative survey that was distributed via email to potential participants. The survey, conducted using Qualtrics technology, included questions about the supervisory experience, systems support for Supervisors of Indigenous PhD scholars, their perceptions on the experience of Indigenous PhD scholars, and how the university could improve the experience of PhD scholars, Supervisors, and Academic Chairs. They were also asked about the impact that increasing the number of Indigenous PhD scholars would have on the academy.

The interview and survey data were de-identified and analyzed inductively through detailed reading to identify common themes (Bingham & Witkowsky, 2022; Vears & Gillam, 2022). This enabled the open coding of data to derive meaning and develop emergent themes through multiple readings. The theoretical flexibility of this method was aligned with an Indigenous approach to the analysis which involved an iterative process of individual and collective cycle coding (Saldãna, 2021; Smith et al., 2016). The first cycle of coding was completed by author three during which main structural themes were drawn from the transcripts. The second cycle was consecutively completed by authors one and two who, reading with an Indigenous lens and worldview, analyzed the structural themes and identified patterns within the data to explain the relationships between the codes (Saldãna, 2021). The third cycle involved collectively reviewing the codes and patterned relationships to further synthesize the themes. Within all cycles of analysis, the position of the researchers and their subjectivity were acknowledged. This research contributes to the growing scholarship on Indigenous research design that aims to be responsive, reflexive, relational, and place-based (Andrews, 2020a, b; Durie, 2005; Kovach, 2009; Martin, 2003; Snow et al., 2016; Tuhiwai Smith, 2012; S. Wilson, 2008).‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬

Participants

There was some diversity in the cohort of PhD scholars who participated in this research project, in terms of their progress, work commitments, care responsibilities, and whether they were on campus or working remotely. All were undertaking research in the field of medicine and health sciences. The Supervisors and/or Academic Chairs were also working in the field of health and had to be engaged with one or more Indigenous PhD scholars but were not necessarily linked to those we interviewed.

Indigenous PhD scholars

Of the nine PhD scholars that we interviewed for this project, three were undertaking their PhD as part of a larger research project, while the remaining six were undertaking independent projects. One person was doing it part-time, while the rest were studying full-time. Most (six) were also working part-time while undertaking their studies. At the time of the interview, PhD participants were at varying stages of their candidature including first, third, and fourth year with one having just submitted their thesis. The majority of PhD participants (seven) had caring responsibilities, including the caring and support of children, grandchildren, nieces, and nephews and/or elderly parents. Five studied onsite at campus, three worked remotely, and one did not specify. All but one participant received a scholarship, either from a research institute or the Commonwealth Research Training Program. Two of those interviewed received a top-up stipend that provides financial support in addition to the scholarship amount. All interviewees were the first in their family to undertake a PhD and four had a parent who had completed an undergraduate or Masters degree.

Supervisors/academic committee chairs

Of the 18 Supervisors or Academic Chairs who completed the survey, 15 were non-Indigenous, two identified as Aboriginal, and one preferred not to say. Most (eight) were Professors, three were Associate Professors, five were Senior Lecturers/Senior Research Fellows, and one was a Lecturer/Research Fellow. Four of those interviewed were both a Supervisor and an Academic Chair for an Indigenous PhD student.

Findings

In this section, we report on the findings relating to how Indigenous PhD scholars navigate their PhD journey, their research areas and methodologies, and the impact their work is having. Of note is the correlation between the views of the Indigenous PhD scholars and the Supervisors/Academic Chairs surveyed, pointing to a shared level of awareness about the experiences of Indigenous PhD scholars in the academy (Vargas et al., 2021).

Navigating the terrain: PhD journeys and academic support processes

The experience of being an Indigenous person within the university environment had a distinct impact on many of the PhD participants. It affected their motivations for undertaking a PhD, their pathway through higher education, how they navigate the university systems, the supports they access, the way they design and undertake their research projects, and their experience of the supervisory relationship. While PhD participants recognized that there is still work to be done to ensure that universities are culturally safe and supportive places, they also found a sense of connection and belonging where they could through engagements with other Indigenous PhD scholars or through Indigenous specific programs.

Pathways and motivations

Indigenous PhD scholars often have diverse entry pathways into PhD programs. A majority of those interviewed completed study to a Masters level (five), one had a Doctor of Medicine Degree (one), and the remaining person enrolled following their Bachelor or Bachelor with Honors (three). Some PhD participants noted that consideration had been given to their professional experience or expertise at the time of enrolment. Most have worked in professional capacities, with only one person undertaking their Bachelor degree, going through Honors, into a Masters and then enrolling in a PhD without joining the professional workforce. While for a few, doing a PhD was already on their radar; for four of the interviewees, it took an encouraging prompt from someone within the university, a colleague, or peer:

Then he basically said to me, ‘Look, I know that you’re really interested in [...]. I think I’ve got a great project that you might be interested in.’ (P7)

One participant who was already working as an academic was encouraged by their peer to utilize the work they were doing to count toward doing a PhD by publication—something they had not previously considered.

The motivations for undertaking a PhD were also varied and included the desire to work in academia that it was important for them professionally and/or that they wanted to establish themselves as an authority in a particular area of enquiry.

I love education and I love teaching. I love being in a classroom and engaging with people. It’s what gives me life. And I did it for 20 years. I know that’s my thing. For me, if I wanted to go to the next level to be in the university and to teach, I had to go get a PhD. That was again, one of my core motivations. (P1)

The intellectual challenge and the ability to have one’s voice heard were also significant to some interviewees, while others recognized that a PhD contributes to increased respect for their expertise.

I always wanted the challenge. The challenge to go to university, and the challenge to go to the highest level ... And you get a lot of respect, having a degree. You just do. Having honour’s, having a masters, having a PhD ... I just saw that as a way that I could get my own voice heard. (P9)

Common among all interview participants was a desire to do something useful for Indigenous communities. They saw that undertaking research that was relevant to their communities would contribute to improving the quality of life of Indigenous people and help to fundamentally shift the way that the health system responds to Indigenous people.

I guess I want to make sure that the health inequity gap is closed. I don’t want my children, when I have them, my cousin, my nieces, and nephews going through the same things that my grandparents and parents have been through. I don’t want people to die 10 years earlier. I don’t want the distrust in the health system to continue ... [or to see the] unconscious bias or racism or institutional racism ... to continue to happen for generations to come. So, I guess I feel that as an Aboriginal doctor, I should care for Aboriginal patients, and I think that my research should also reflect that. (P8)

Another motivating factor was the need to ensure that research for and about Indigenous people was done in culturally respectful ways. It was evident that interview participants were aware of the history of inappropriate research on Indigenous Australians noting that it was often conducted without proper consultation and reflected negative stereotyping and deficit perspectives. By undertaking research, themselves, PhD participants wanted to be a part of changing how that research was undertaken, analyzed, and translated.

I wanted to work with more Aboriginal people and do some stuff that was a bit more useful and focused for community. They talked about how these projects were there, and there’s all this data being collected on Aboriginal people, yet part of the challenge is finding people who can come along and do the research and analyze the data and do that justice. I was motivated by that as well a bit, and thought, ‘I can be one of those people.’ (P2)

Navigating the university environment

As institutions that have contributed to colonial processes, universities continue to be alienating places for many Indigenous PhD scholars. Experiences of racism, feelings of not belonging, being an imposter, and issues navigating nonresponsive university systems and processes were reflected by PhD participants and by the Supervisors/Academic Chairs. Despite this, Indigenous PhD scholars found spaces within which to feel comfortable by connecting with peers and engaging with Indigenous academic and support centers on campus. While PhD participants’ experience of the supervisory process differed, the majority noted the importance of having an Indigenous Supervisor as part of their team and/or engaging an Indigenous Advisory Group. This contributed to feelings of being understood and supported in their research vision.

Feelings of (not) belonging

Despite already having an undergraduate or Masters degree, PhD participants reported a lack of confidence, a feeling that they did not belong, or that they were unsure of their skills to do doctoral research.

One of the things that I found quite interesting ... was that [Indigenous] people were talking about the imposter syndrome, and that a lot of people thought they don’t belong here. What are we even doing? We’re not good enough to be doing a PhD. I have felt that myself too, even though I’ve done quite a lot of the study in the past, I felt, what am I doing? Am I fooling myself? Am I not that good? Just a lot of self doubt. (P5)

Supervisors and Academic Chairs also reflected on scholars’ lack of confidence, attributing it to the legacy and ongoing impact of systemic discrimination and privileging of Western knowledge in the education sector.

I think colonization amplifies the self-confidence concerns for Indigenous students that are typically raised during anyone’s doctoral experience. (S12)

Several PhD participants described experiences of racism and instances where their skills and expertise were undervalued as a result of being an Indigenous person. It was evident that those experiences exacerbated feelings of alienation and imposter syndrome.

[P]eople can underestimate your abilities as an Aboriginal student and the skills that you bring. It takes a while for someone to actually realize, oh, you actually can do epidemiology. You have these skills. I thought you were just here to meet a quota type thing where it’s like, well, I could have learned something from you. (P4)

On a practical level, some noted the difficulty of navigating the university’s dense and rigid systems and processes, including the lack of clarity around enrolment, scholarships, accessing certain training programs, and other supports.

Role of Indigenous academic and support centers and peer networks

Indigenous peer networks or cohorts were important to countering experiences of alienation within the broader university environment. Throughout their candidature, PhD participants made connections with other Indigenous scholars and through those networks, shared tips about navigating the university environment, built confidence in what they were doing, and began to develop spaces where they felt they belonged:

Probably one of the best things to come out of it is being able to meet people and network, and just know who else is around, particularly other Aboriginal PhD students in health. Creating those social moments where you can talk to other people about how their research is going and what issues they're finding. Feeling like you’re a bit less alone in your journey. (P2)

The majority of PhD participants valued having access to Indigenous-specific academic and support centers as they created a culturally safe space for scholars to come together, provided navigational support and tailored upskilling services. It was evident that having Indigenous staff within these centers was crucial for PhD scholars to feel understood and accepted in the university setting.

The way I engaged with the university was in Indigenous created spaces. I was far more comfortable there. They were the spaces I wanted to be in. And I think they support you to be who you are. You’re automatically accepted into the space. (P9)

The importance of the connections between Indigenous PhD scholars and the services provided by “Indigenous hubs” were also acknowledged by Supervisors:

These sorts of cultural/political/historical collective experiences that link students together and to past/present/future are valuable in ways that I cannot put into words. (S17)

Supervisory experiences

There were mixed responses from PhD scholars about their supervisory experiences. Many felt well supported, with their team bringing to the project combined knowledge and expertise, while others felt that their projects were misunderstood or that they were left to find their own path with too little guidance.

[My Supervisor is] amazing, and supportive, and incredible, and very respectful. I mean, I couldn’t have asked for a better Supervisor to be honest. She’s outstanding as a Supervisor, and very culturally safe. (P1)

I don’t really have anything good to say to be fair... I’m a very independent person. And so I haven’t sought help, I guess, unless I desperately needed it. (P8)

All but one person had an Indigenous Supervisor or Academic Chair, and for most, having an Indigenous person involved in their project was hugely important. PhD participants reported feeling better understood by their Indigenous Supervisors or Chairs that they did not have to justify their research or their research approach and that it gave them more of a license to apply an “Indigenous lens” to their project.

That was very important, because I want to be able to do research that benefits Aboriginal communities, and not have to worry too much about coming up against issues internally and wasting energy, I don’t know, having debates about proper ways to do things. Maybe I’m even taking it for granted a little bit that a lot of that pathway is smoothed by the fact that I have a senior Aboriginal Supervisor, and none of those battles have to be fought that you do hear about other students having. Just breakdowns in understanding, lack of understanding. (P2)

While having an Indigenous Supervisor was beneficial, a few of the PhD participants noted the lack of time some Indigenous Supervisors had, acknowledging the demands they face as one of a small number of Indigenous academics within Australian universities.

[T]here’s only a handful of people really that identify as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders within any university and they’re always expected to supervise or be involved or be on a council or something like that. So, they do get extremely time poor. (P8)

It was evident that PhD participants mitigated the lack of time by adding additional people to their supervisory team or working to find more efficient ways to get their expertise and input.

It’s a great opportunity to be in proximity to her because she’s quite a great mind and has so much knowledge of the Aboriginal health space across the board, having worked in community health services and policy and as a professor doing research. But her time is very limited, so she’s been great with that high level stuff... (P2)

Having an incompatibility with one or more of their Supervisors with regard to research approaches or modes of interacting was reported by two PhD participants, with one attributing this to their non-Indigenous Supervisor’s cultural background.

And then my other Supervisor, who is a fantastic person, incredibly clever, but wanting to take my project in a direction that didn’t fit me, and I think there’s quite a bit of misunderstanding that occurred as well. I think just a language... I don’t know. I think, I felt like a lot of the times we didn’t speak the same language... So, we parted ways. (P1)

When reflecting on their overall experience of being a Supervisor for an Indigenous PhD scholar, many reflected on the reciprocal nature of the supervisory relationship and how fulfilling the process had been for them. We found that the knowledge and skills of Supervisors around Indigenous research practices, cultural protocols, and family and community commitments were enriched by this relationship.

It is a very rewarding experience for me – I am learning every day in this supervisory role. It’s a two-way learning relationship. (S12)

Supervisors also came to understand the lack of processes that support Indigenous ways of undertaking research through the supervisory relationship and saw the need for Indigenous scholars to access support from Indigenous people either within or outside of the university system.

I am sure there are aspects of my PhD student’s personal journey that I do not understand, and/or were not culturally responsive enough to identify and respond to ... so having an Indigenous co-supervisor or mentor to guide and support would be of great assistance. (S15)

The multiple demands on Indigenous PhD scholars over and above those of their non-Indigenous students were also acknowledged by Supervisors. These included demands from within the universities to be the Indigenous voice on a range of committees, extra responsibilities associated with working with community, and managing caring and cultural responsibilities.

[R]eally noticeable differences in the financial (caring for family, paying for mortgage) and cultural / family responsibilities that I have not seen in non-Indigenous students. (S13)

Indigenous PhD students are also called upon for other responsibilities sometimes, at University, which non-Indigenous students may not need to do. (S4)

Shifting the terrain: Indigenous researcher priorities and practices

All of the Indigenous PhD scholars that we interviewed were conducting research that directly targeted Indigenous health issues and were conscientiously working to contribute to the improvement of Indigenous peoples’ lives and their experiences of the health system. A majority were approaching the research from the positionality that their Indigeneity had an impact on their project in terms of the design, method, and/or analysis.

Indigenous ways of doing research

PhD participants were undertaking projects on a range of topics across several departments in the health sciences. They were employing diverse theoretical and methodological approaches, including qualitative methods, institutional theory, mixed methods, queer theoretical approaches, and standard epidemiological and participatory research methods.

Mixed methods ... observational methods. And obviously, Indigenous methodologies. So active listening, just being a part... Like when we did our research. It’s hard to explain to non-Indigenous people, but you get it. It’s just being there, listening, understanding. (P3)

Most wove into their projects what they described as Indigenous ways of doing research, even those projects that were embedded in the Western scientific paradigm.

It was medical-focused, but I’m Indigenous and I think the way that an Indigenous person can connect with another Indigenous person, there’s that unspoken language as well. (P7)

To counter the deficit-based focus that has dominated research on Indigenous communities, PhD participants undertook their projects with a strength-based approach that recognized the resilience and tenacity of the communities they were working with.

Most previous research has looked at, ‘How are Aboriginal people worse off than non-Indigenous people on these range of factors?’ And then maybe investigating some of the factors associated with poor health. It’s looking at the deficit, and also looking at, say, behavioral factors outside of the broader context of socioeconomic position, colonization, and all those upstream factors that also impact health ... I’m not comparing Aboriginal people to non-Aboriginal people; I’m looking within populations at things that help people be healthier within the population. (P1)

Acknowledging the importance of centering Indigenous people’s experiences, community engagement was a component of many of the projects, either through advisory groups, participants, or mentors. This provided PhD scholars the oversight and cultural capital they deemed necessary for their projects.

Yeah, I had a reference group, but I also worked really closely with the [Indigenous Organization]. I worked with them to give me a bit more of a cultural lens ... [M]y community reference group was four people, it wasn’t big, but it [represented] a range of different views ... I did a number of presentations, and always invited [them]. (P9)

For those whose work was informed by ethnographic or participatory research methods, great care was taken in developing and nurturing relationships. Scholars reported the importance of ensuring that their research was relevant and beneficial to those they were engaging with. Integrating community into the project management and research design processes was also deemed important.

And we met with research workers within [the Indigenous organization] and then just asked them, what are their priorities? What are their concerns [in this area]? And then we tried to identify which questions could address that and ... which questions were important to them. [T]hen the last [meeting] was around getting them to help interpret the data. And then they are all included as co-authors on that paper, if they wanted to... Because they’re the ones coming up with the knowledge. (P3)

PhD scholars were cognizant of the need to work with Indigenous communities in “the right way.” This included a commitment to community engagement at all levels of the research activity.

[It is] important that the people whose data it is have a voice in what’s done with it ... and the project partners all saw this as quite important research to do. And then it’s just making sure that what’s coming out of it aligns with what they thought was happening, and that they’re able to benefit from it as well ... Going back to the communities where we recruited ... [and] sharing back results with them, and also seeing it as a two way [project], ‘Here’s what we initially found. What about this interests you, and does it spark any questions for you that you might want us to investigate?’ (P2)

While this level of engagement ensures research that is community driven, informed, and relevant, it also brings with it a level of responsibility. PhD participants felt the weight of that responsibility and noted the increased time and cognitive commitment necessary to work with respect, reciprocity, and with the right protocols.

I want to be as transparent as possible.... I guess being there just means that if someone wants to catch up at any point, I’m just there ... I think that’s really important to me. It’s going to sound silly, but energetically I think, people can be resistant when you fly in and out. That mentality of ‘what, you’re just going to study me and leave kind of thing.’ So, for me, it’s just a natural thing to do. And it’s a respectful thing that I want to do for me and for people in the community. (P3)

While these processes are time-consuming and come with a level of anxiety, PhD participants also found it rewarding, noting the impacts of being an Indigenous researcher on the level and depth of engagement they received from community members.

I think if you had a non-Aboriginal team, there’s no way we would have got over 70% recruitment ... Because you know, no one wants to talk to a stranger and share all this intimate information. (P6)

Supervisors and Academic Chairs also reflected on the ways that their Indigenous PhD scholars were undertaking their research, acknowledging a difference from many of their non-Indigenous PhD scholars. A majority commented on how their Indigenous PhD scholars came up against Western knowledge systems and research practices and the innovative ways they worked to overcome them.

[A]ll the university systems are so totally saturated in Western non-Indigenous constructions of knowledge and research that it makes using Indigenous methodologies very complex! ... We have at times included key Elders in our supervision meetings which has been significant. And have created ethics processes whereby local Indigenous ethics custodians can liaise directly with the Chair of research committee. So, there are possibilities and ways of being creative that we have put in place. (S17)

The obligations their Indigenous PhD scholars were contending with due to the nature and methods of the research being undertaken were also acknowledged by Supervisors and Chairs. They saw these approaches as important contributions to research practice and the need for university systems to better accommodate these within the academic environment.

I would say that non-Indigenous Supervisors need to be conscious and actively accommodate the specific cultural obligations their Indigenous students have to their communities, for example it needs to be accepted that the student will spend time working for Community in ways that from a typical non-Indigenous perspective is not directly related to the PhD but is. (S12)

Dominant Western discourses of ‘what is research’ and ‘what is a PhD’ and what are ‘research ethics’ are so Western culturally dominant/specific that an enormous amount of work needs to be done to loosen these specifications or find ways to work between/through them. (S17)

For community, about community

When asked to consider the impact that Indigenous PhD scholars are having/will have on the academic environment, Supervisors and Indigenous PhD scholars noted that things were changing in incremental, but important ways. They cited initiatives within academic support processes that were responsive to Indigenous scholars’ needs and access to peer networks and culturally safe places. Having an increasing number of Indigenous PhD scholars was regarded as important to building peoples’ confidence, supporting their engagement with Indigenous knowledge and practices, and as an incentive for others to enroll. A critical mass was also seen as a way to develop a collective authoritative voice within the academy to break down some of the existing barriers.

So, people are going to be watching you. And if they see Elders going to a university, that’s like, ‘Geez, Aunty or Uncle can do that. Why can’t I do that?’ (P7)

Through shifting the types of research being undertaken and the ways in which it is being conducted, PhD scholars are having an impact on research methods and practice. The value of incorporating Indigenous ways of knowing, being, and doing into academic work was seen as positively contributing to project outcomes as well as academia more broadly.

I think it’s been more so that the non-Indigenous person has learned to change [their] views as well, [their] perspective on how [they] view the data or how [they] think that the data should be presented from an Indigenous perspective, as opposed to a white person looking at data that involves Indigenous peoples. [They’re] now able to just understand that it can be presented differently, and we might be saying the same thing, but in a more appropriate or culturally acceptable way. (P8)

Supervisors recognized the importance of diversity in academia and the contribution that Indigenous approaches are to knowledge production and excellence. It was clear that they valued the scholarly initiatives being undertaken by Indigenous PhD scholars, reshaping how things are “normally” done in the academy and beyond it.

Having more access to PhD programs and more graduates will create a far more inclusive academy and produce world-leading research that broadens the academy’s and the public’s horizons. These graduates will go on to further shape future research and public discourse and ultimately lead to a more enlightened society. (S4)

PhD participants were acutely aware that they were walking in the footsteps of those who had come before them. They were grateful to have Indigenous people in the academic environment and noted the impact this had on their own projects and what effect more Indigenous academics would have into the future. While undertaking a PhD was a personal intellectual journey or aspiration, it was also about improving the lives of Indigenous communities and being a role model for their communities. Many reflected on the importance of showing to others that, not only is a PhD possible, but it can be of value to Indigenous communities.

I think the more students are graduating, the more people will realize that it’s been earned and not given. I think that’s only going to create more and more opportunities for young people to go, okay, it’s possible for me to do this. There’s a space for me to do this. To not think that ... University is not for them. To think that it’s possible and to think that there’s heaps of different PhDs they can read by Indigenous students and go, oh okay, yeah, this is really possible for me. (P3)

Discussion: operating at the interface

Using Indigenous Standpoint Theory to understand the scholars’ experience of the cultural interface in the academy we have sought to bring to the fore a story that challenges the academy’s “othered” constructions of and assumptions about Indigenous people and knowledges. Operating within a colonial institution that privileges Western educational practices, Indigenous PhD scholars are bringing to the academy their knowledge and expertise and navigating the tensions that are produced when different knowledges systems intersect (Castagno et al., 2022; Nakata, 2007a). They are not engaging with the university environment or undertaking research as passive agents who conform to the status quo within the Western academy. They are instead asserting their Indigenous agency and creating their own approaches founded in Indigenous ways of knowing, being, and doing, resetting conceptions and lived experience of place and belonging. Resistance, subversiveness, pragmatism, and accommodation are all evident in the ways that they are engaging with their doctoral experience (Nakata, 2002, 2007a). These findings support a growing body of research internationally that explores the ways that Indigenous postsecondary students and academics are overcoming systemic barriers and engaging in emancipatory research processes to successfully Indigenize the work being undertaken within university settings (Gallop & Bastien, 2016; Johnson et al., 2017; Kirkness & Barnhardt, 1991; Povey et al., 2022a, 2022b; Povey et al., 2022a, 2022b; Walters et al., 2019).

While our research has found that Indigenous PhD scholars still report feelings of isolation and alienation in navigating the cultural interface (Carter et al., 2018), we also found that they are engaging in Indigenous spaces and with peer-to-peer cohorts that provide them the confidence to bring their full selves to their scholarly role and project. These spaces and engagements diminish feelings of being an imposter, support navigational assistance, and contribute to feelings of agency and belonging in what have been very exclusionary places (Castagno et al., 2022; Hogarth, 2022; Johnson et al., 2017; Nakata, 2007a; Trudgett, 2013).

With an increasing number of Indigenous academics available for supervision, Indigenous PhD scholars are benefitting from having access to their personal and professional capital (Povey et al., 2022a). Having Indigenous Supervisors provides relief from having to justify the merits of their research or methodologies and eases the colonial load experienced by PhD scholars in academic environments. There are, however, still not enough Indigenous academics to fulfil these roles and those that are available are often time poor (Povey et al., 2022a; Walters et al., 2019). While there is some evidence on the self-reflexiveness on the part of non-Indigenous Supervisors, Indigenous PhD scholars still spend time managing their lack of understanding about Indigenous research and research paradigms, often having to do upskilling work within a structured relationship that should be geared toward supporting them. Working within these constraints, however, Indigenous PhD scholars are finding ways of accessing culturally framed intellectual input by engaging Indigenous mentors outside of the academy, creating community advisory groups, or getting input from community organizations where appropriate. In this way, they are navigating the cultural interface and enacting their Indigenous agency by designing their projects such that they foster the cultural capital necessary for their research (Castagno et al., 2022; Gallop & Bastien, 2016; Johnson et al., 2017).

As Indigenous researchers undertaking research relevant to Indigenous communities and/or in ways that align with Indigenous ways of knowing, being, and doing, these scholars are navigating complex responsibilities and priorities to ensure that their research is accountable to community needs (Castagno et al., 2022, 2022). They are pushing at the boundaries of long-held Western academic practices, challenging the academy with a different, age-old knowledge system (Nakata, 2007a). A critical mass in this context makes for compelling shifts to the status quo. Indigenous PhD scholars are introducing practices of relationality, Indigenous and community-controlled research, data and knowledge sovereignty, Indigenous ethics, and other critically important research applications. In these ways, they are not only undertaking ethically rigorous research but also shifting the terrain of accepted approaches to how research should be conducted from an Indigenous Standpoint (Foley, 2003; Nakata, 2002, 2007a, b; Povey et al., 2022a; Rigney, 1999).

Integrating Indigenous knowledge production into a system that philosophically does not understand it, and structurally does not cater for it, is difficult work. The extra cognitive demands on Indigenous scholars to do the intellectual and emotional work involved in this back and forth process is illustrative of the tensions inherent in balancing Indigenous and Western knowledge positions that Nakata describes as one of the principles of Indigenous Standpoint Theory (Day et al., 2015, p. 504; Nakata, 2007a; Povey et al., 2022a; Walters et al., 2019). Challenging an academic environment from within requires a fearless approach. Understanding the risk is important. Indigenous PhD scholars are demonstrating their willingness to step into “brave spaces,” in which their safety cannot be guaranteed (Arao & Clemens, 2023). Negotiating the cultural interface and re-setting the story necessitate a willingness to be vulnerable, to engage in intellectual conflict, and to be courageous and act with agency in the face of academic colonialism. The changes made to knowledge production through the combined efforts of many scholars amounts to a shift from Indigenous ways of knowing, being, and doing considered “outsider” knowledge, to becoming an integrated part of the academic environment (McLaughlin & Whatman, 2011, p. 367; Povey et al., 2022a; Tuhiwai Smith, 2005). As Walters et al. (2019) state, “survivance in the academy … is less about resilience and victimhood and more about powerful transformational resistance strategies” (p. 629).

Durie (2005), like Nakata, describes the interaction of Western and Indigenous knowledge production as research being undertaken at the “interface.” This approach he says, “aims to harness the energy from two systems of understanding in order to create new knowledge that can then be used to advance understanding” (Durie, 2005, p. 18). The Indigenous PhD scholars who we engaged as part of this project are evidence of the innovations that emerge from the coming together of different knowledge systems and the benefits that can be drawn from Indigenous peoples’ approach to research within existing academic environments (Durie, 2005). They are pushing at the boundaries of accepted approaches to academic support and research practices, bridging knowledge systems in culturally appropriate ways (Denzin & Lincoln, 2008; Hogarth, 2022; Tuhiwai Smith, 2012), and contributing to a fundamental paradigm shift toward epistemological equity across the academy (Martin, 2003; Povey et al., 2022a; Walters et al., 2019). While acknowledging that there is still much work to be done to ensure universities are responsive to the needs of Indigenous PhD scholars (Asmar et al., 2009; Chirgwin, 2015; Thunig & Jones, 2021), we acknowledge and celebrate here the “vibrant Indigenous sector” that is emerging within higher education institutions and the impact this is having (Page et al., 2017, p. 30; Moodie et al., 2018; Walters et al., 2019; Povey et al., 2022a).

Conclusion

In this paper, we have focused on the experiences of Indigenous PhD scholars in Australia, but acknowledge that many of these experiences are shared by other Indigenous PhD scholars in locations such as Canada, the USA, and New Zealand who are forging their own paths within Western knowledge systems that dominate university settings (Bancroft, 2013; Hutchings et al., 2019; McKinley et al., 2011; Wilson et al., 2011). Using Indigenous Standpoint Theory, we conducted an in-depth examination of Indigenous PhD scholars’ experiences of their PhD journey and the reflections of Supervisors/Academic Chairs to show how these PhD scholars are navigating the cultural interface in university environments. What becomes apparent is that despite being in institutional environments cast by Western colonial values and enduring experiences of racism and alienation, these PhD scholars are finding ways to circumvent inadequate supervisory processes, systems support, and research processes, to carve a path that centers Indigenous ways of knowing, being, and doing. Theirs is a story of how intellectual bravery is enriching academic research processes and fundamentally changing the ways things have been done in the academy (Povey et al., 2022a; Walters et al., 2019). These scholars exemplify the principles outlined by Nakata as underpinning an Indigenous Standpoint (Nakata, 2007a). They are operating with an awareness of the complexities of working at the cultural interface, enacting agency within the limitations and possibilities of that space, and working with the tensions inherent in that process to place Indigenous epistemologies at the heart of their research practices.