Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Ecological Momentary Assessment of Positive and Negative Affect in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder

  • Published:
Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Although posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is characterized by negative affect (NA), much less is known about daily fluctuations in positive affect (PA) and its association with NA in PTSD. In the present study, participants with sexual assault-related PTSD (n = 19), a sexual assault experience without PTSD (n = 20), and healthy controls (n = 21) completed an ecological momentary assessment (EMA) where they reported positive and negative affect in the morning, afternoon, and evening for one week. The results showed that those with PTSD reported less daily positive affect independent of momentary negative affect and more daily negative affect independent of momentary positive affect than controls. Examination of directional affective valence (positive affect minus negative affect) also indicated overall more negative affect among those with PTSD compared to controls. However, those who experienced sexual assault without PTSD did not differ from controls in daily positive affect, daily negative affect, or directional affective valence. Although there was no evidence of differences in daily levels of positive and negative affect as a function of time of day among those with PTSD, decreased positive affect was observed in the evening among those who experienced sexual assault without PTSD. These findings suggest that PTSD is characterized by independent momentary increases in negative affect as well as independent momentary decreases in positive affect, both of which should be addressed during the course of evidence-based treatment.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Amdur, R. L., Larsen, R., & Liberzon, I. (2000). Emotional processing in combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder: A comparison with traumatized and normal controls. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 14(3), 219–238. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0887-6185(99)00035-3.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Publishing.

  • American Psychiatric Association (Ed.). (2022). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5-TR. American Psychiatric Association Publishing. Fifth edition, text revision).

  • Antony, M. M., Bieling, P. J., Cox, B. J., Enns, M., & Swinson, R. P. (1998). Psychometric properties of the 42-item and 21-item versions of the Depression anxiety stress scales in clinical groups and a community sample. Psychological Assessment, 10(2), 176–181. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.10.2.176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Badour, C. L., & Feldner, M. T. (2018). The role of disgust in posttraumatic stress: A critical review of the empirical literature. Journal of Experimental Psychopathology, 9, https://doi.org/10.5127/pr.032813.

  • Bates, D., Mächler, M., Bolker, B., & Walker, S. (2015). Fitting Linear mixed-effects models using lme4. Journal of Statistical Software, 67(1), 1–48. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v067.i01.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Benfer, N., Bardeen, J. R., Spitzer, E. G., & Rogers, T. A. (2021). A network analysis of two conceptual approaches to the etiology of PTSD. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 84, 102479.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blaxton, J. M., Nelson, N. A., & Bergeman, C. S. (2021). The positive and negative affect relation in the context of stress and age. Emotion, 21(8), 1712–1720. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000975.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boelen, P. A. (2021). Dampening of positive affect is associated with posttraumatic stress following stressful life events. Eur J Psychotraumatol, 12, 1851077. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1851077.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bonanno, G. A. (2004). Loss, trauma, and human resilience: Have we underestimated the human capacity to Thrive after extremely aversive events? American Psychologist, 59(1), 20–28. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.59.1.20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bradley, R., Greene, J., Russ, E., Dutra, L., & Westen, D. (2005). A multidimensional meta-analysis of psychotherapy for PTSD. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 214–227.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brake, C. A., Adams, T. G., Hood, C. O., & Badour, C. L. (2019). Posttraumatic mental contamination and the interpersonal psychological theory of suicide: Effects via DSM-5 PTSD symptom clusters. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 43, 259–271.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, W. J., Dewey, D., Bunnell, B. E., Boyd, S. J., Wilkerson, A. K., Mitchell, M. A., & Bruce, S. E. (2018). A critical review of negative affect and the application of CBT for PTSD. Trauma Violence & Abuse, 19(2), 176–194. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838016650188.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, W. J., Hetzel-Riggin, M. D., Mitchell, M. A., & Bruce, S. E. (2021). Rumination mediates the relationship between negative affect and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in female interpersonal trauma survivors. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(13–14), 6418–6439. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260518818434.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, L. A., Watson, D., & Leeka, J. (1989). Diurnal variation in the positive affect. Motivation and Emotion, 13(3), 205–234. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00995536.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Craske, M. G., Meuret, A. E., Ritz, T., Treanor, M., Dour, H., & Rosenfield, D. (2019). Positive affect treatment for depression and anxiety: A randomized clinical trial for a core feature of anhedonia. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 87(5), 457–471.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham, K. C. (2020). Shame and guilt in PTSD. In M. T. Tull, & N. A. Kimbrel (Eds.), Emotion in posttraumatic stress disorder: Etiology, assessment, neurobiology, and treatment (pp. 145–171). Elsevier Academic.

  • Davidson, R. J. (1998). Affective style and affective disorders: Perspectives from affective neuroscience. Cognition and Emotion, 12, 307–330.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davidson, R. J., Marshall, J. R., Tomarken, A. J., & Henriques, J. B. (2000). While a phobic waits: Regional brain electrical and autonomic activity in social phobics during anticipation of public speaking. Biological Psychiatry, 47, 85–95.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, K. C., Gilmore, A. K., Stappenbeck, C. A., Balsan, M. J., George, W. H., & Norris, J. (2014). How to score the sexual experiences Survey? A comparison of nine methods. Psychology of Violence, 4(4), 445–461. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037494.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Dedert, E., Dennis, P. A., Swinkels, C. M., Calhoun, P. S., Dennis, M. F., & Beckham, J. C. (2014). Ecological Momentary Assessment of Posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms during a smoking quit attempt. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 16, 430–436. https://doi.org/10.1093/ntr/ntt167.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dejonckheere, E., Mestdagh, M., Verdonck, S., Lafit, G., Ceulemans, E., Bastian, B., & Kalokerinos, E. K. (2021). The relation between positive and negative affect becomes more negative in response to personally relevant events. Emotion, 21(2), 326–336. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000697.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DePierro, J., D’Andrea, W., Frewen, P. A., & Todman, M. (2018). Alterations in positive affect: Relationship to symptoms, traumatic experiences, and affect ratings. Psychological Trauma: Theory Research Practice and Policy, 10, 585–593. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000317.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dewey, D., McDonald, M. K., Brown, W. J., Boyd, S. J., Bunnell, B. E., & Schuldberg, D. (2015). The impact of ecological momentary assessment on posttraumatic stress symptom trajectory. Psychiatry Research, 230(2), 300–303.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Díaz-García, A., González-Robles, A., Mor, S., et al. (2020). Positive and negative affect schedule (PANAS): Psychometric properties of the online Spanish version in a clinical sample with emotional disorders. Bmc Psychiatry, 20, 56. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-2472-1.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., & Emmons, R. A. (1984). The independence of positive and negative affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47(5), 1105–1117. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.47.5.1105.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • DiMauro, J., Renshaw, K. D., & Kashdan, T. B. (2016). Beliefs in negative mood regulation and daily negative affect in PTSD. Personality and Individual Differences, 95, 34–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.02.030.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dornbach-Bender, A., Ruggero, C. J., Smith, P., Schuler, K., Bennett, C. B., Neumann, C. S., & Callahan, J. L. (2020b). Association of behavioral activation system sensitivity to lower level facets of positive affect in daily life. Personality and Individual Differences, 152, 109570. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.109570.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dornbach-Bender, A., Ruggero, C. J., Schuler, K., Contractor, A. A., Waszczuk, M., Kleva, C. S., & Kotov, R. (2020a). Positive and negative affect in the daily life of world trade center responders with PTSD: An ecological momentary assessment study. Psychological Trauma: Theory Research Practice and Policy, 12(1), 75–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Egloff, B. (1998). The independence of positive and negative affect depends on the affect measure. Personality and Individual Differences, 25(6), 1101–1109. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(98)00105-6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Emens, J. S., Berman, A. M., Thosar, S. S., Butler, M. P., Roberts, S. A., Clemons, N. A., Herzig, M. X., McHill, A. W., Morimoto, M., Bowles, N. P., & Shea, S. A. (2020). Circadian rhythm in negative affect: Implications for mood disorders. Psychiatry Research, 293, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113337. Article 113337.

  • Erwin, M. C., Dennis, P. A., Coughlin, L. N., Calhoun, P. S., & Beckham, J. C. (2019). Examining the relationship between negative affect and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms among smokers using ecological momentary assessment. Journal of Affective Disorders, 253, 285–291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2019.04.035.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Feldner, M. T., Frala, J., Badour, C., Leen-Feldner, E. W., & Olatunji, B. O. (2010). An empirical test of the association between disgust and sexual assault. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 3, 11–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fonzo, G. A. (2018). Diminished positive affect and traumatic stress: A biobehavioral review and commentary on trauma affective neuroscience. Neurobiology of Stress, 9, 214–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ynstr.2018.10.002.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Haagen, J. F., Smid, G. E., Knipscheer, J. W., & Kleber, R. J. (2015). The efficacy of recommended treatments for veterans with PTSD: A meta-regression analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 40, 184–194. https://doi.org/10.1006/j.cpr.205.06.008

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hasler, B. P., Mehl, M. R., Bootzin, R. R., & Vazire, S. (2008). Preliminary evidence of diurnal rhythms in everyday behaviors associated with positive affect. Journal of Research in Personality, 42(6), 1537–1546. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2008.07.012.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hopper, J. W., Pitman, R. K., Su, Z., Heyman, G. M., Lasko, N. B., Macklin, M. L., et al. (2008). Probing reward function in posttraumatic stress disorder: Expectancy and satisfaction with monetary gains and losses. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 42, 802–807.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0092656608001013.

  • Kelly, M. R., Killgore, W. D. S., & Haynes, P. L. (2016). Understanding Recent Insights in Sleep and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder from a Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) Framework. Current Sleep Medicine Reports, 2, 223–232 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40675-016-0056-x.

  • Kessler, R. C., Sonnega, A., Bromet, E., Hughes, M., & Nelson, C. B. (1995). Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 1048–1060.Koss, M. P., Abbey, A., Campbell, R., Cook, S., Norris, J., Testa, M., … White, J. (2007). Revising the SES: A collaborative process to improve assessment of sexual aggression and victimization. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 31(4), 357–370. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2007.00385.x.

  • Koss, M. P., Abbey, A., Campbell, R., Cook, S., Norris, J., Testa, M., Ullman, S., West, C., & White, J. (2007). Revising the SES: A collaborative process to improve assessment of sexual aggression and victimization. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 31(4), 357–370. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2007.00385.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lovibond, S. H., & Lovibond, P. F. (1993). Manual for the Depression anxiety stress scales (DASS). Psychology Foundation Monograph.

  • Mackinnon, A., Jorm, A., Christensen, H., Korten, A., Jacomb, P., & Rodgers, B. (1999). A short form of the positive and negative affect schedule: Evaluation of factorial validity and invariance across demographic variables in a community sample. Personality and Individual Differences, 27, 405–416.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McLean, C. P., Levy, H. C., Miller, M. L., & Tolin, D. F. (2022). Exposure therapy for PTSD: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 91, 102115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2021.102115.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mekawi, Y., Murphy, L., Munoz, A., Briscione, M., Tone, E. B., Norrholm, S. D., Jovanovic, T., Bradley, B., & Powers, A. (2020). The role of negative affect in the association between attention bias to threat and posttraumatic stress: An eye-tracking study. Psychiatry Research, 284, 112674. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2019.112674.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Murray, G. (2007). Diurnal mood variation in depression: A signal of disturbed circadian function? Journal of Affective Disorders, 102(1–3), 47–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Murray, G., Allen, N. B., & Trinder, J. (2002). Longitudinal investigation of mood variability and the ffm: Neuroticism predicts variability in extended states of positive and negative affect. Personality and Individual Differences, 33(8), 1217–1228. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(01)00217-3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Olatunji, B. O., Ciesielski, B., & Tolin, D. (2010). Fear and loathing: A meta-analytic review of the specificity of anger in PTSD. Behavior Therapy, 41, 93–105.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pugach, C. P., May, C. P., & Wiscom, B. E. (2023a). Positive emotion in posttraumatic stress disorder: A global or context-specific problem? Journal of Trauma Stress, 36, 444–456. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22928.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pugach, C. P., Starr, L. R., Silvia, P. J., & Wisco, B. E. (2023b). Negative emotion differentiation in trauma-exposed community members: Associations with posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in daily life. Journal of Psychopathology and Clinical Science. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000851. Advance online publication.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Raudales, A. M., Short, N. A., & Schmidt, N. B. (2019). Emotion dysregulation mediates the relationship between trauma type and PTSD symptoms in a diverse trauma-exposed clinical sample. Personality and Individual Differences, 139, 28–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2018.10.033.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raudales, A. M., Yang, M., Forkus, S. R., Kiefer, R., & Weiss, N. H. (2022). Daily reciprocal relations between negative and positive emotion dysregulation and posttraumatic stress symptoms among individuals with a history of sexual assault. Psychiatry Research, 315, 114724.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reich, J. W., Zautra, A. J., & Davis, M. (2003). Dimensions of affect relationships: Models and their integrative implications. Review of General Psychology, 7, 66–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Russell, J. A., & Carroll, J. M. (1999). On the bipolarity of positive and negative affect. Psychological Bulletin, 125(1), 3–30. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.125.1.3.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schmukle, S. C., Egloff, B., & Burns, L. R. (2002). The relationship between positive and negative affect in the positive and negative affect schedule. Journal of Research in Personality, 36, 463–475.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schuler, K., Ruggero, C. J., Mahaffey, B., Gonzalez, A., Callahan, L., Boals, J., Waszczuk, A., Luft, M. A., B. J., & Kotov, R. (2021). When Hindsight is not 20/20: Ecological Momentary Assessment of PTSD symptoms Versus Retrospective Report. Assessment, 28(1), 238–247. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191119869826.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seidemann, R., Duek, O., Jia, R., Levy, I., & Harpaz-Rotem, I. (2021). The reward system and post-traumatic stress disorder: Does Trauma affect the way we interact with positive stimuli? Chronic Stress. https://doi.org/10.1177/2470547021996006.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sheehan, D. V., Lecrubier, Y., Sheehan, K. H., Amorim, P., Janavs, J., Weiller, E., Hergueta, T., Baker, R., & Dunbar, G. C. (1998). The mini-international neuropsychiatric interview (M.I.N.I): The development and validation of a structured diagnostic psychiatric interview for DSM-IV and ICD-10. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 59(Suppl 20), 22–33.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shiffman, S., Stone, A. A., & Hufford, M. R. (2008). Ecological momentary assessment. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 4, 1–32. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.3.022806.091415.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Silver, K. E., Anderson, R. E., & Brouwer, A. M. (2022). Emotional responses to a sexual assault threat: A qualitative analysis among women with histories of sexual victimization. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(1–2), 9–32. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260520908019.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Simons, J. S., Simons, R. M., Grimm, K. J., Keith, J. A., & Stoltenberg, S. F. (2021). Affective dynamics among veterans: Associations with distress tolerance and posttraumatic stress symptoms. Emotion, 21(4), 757–771. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000745.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tull, M. T., & Kimbrel, N. A. (Eds.). (2020). Emotion in posttraumatic stress disorder: Etiology, assessment, neurobiology, and treatment. Elsevier Academic.

  • Tull, M. T., Jakupcak, M., McFadden, M. E., & Roemer, L. (2007). The role of negative affect intensity and the fear of emotions in posttraumatic stress symptom severity among victims of childhood interpersonal violence. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 195(7), 580–587. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0b013e318093ed5f.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tung, N. Y. C., Yap, Y., Bei, B., Luecken, L. J., & Wiley, J. F. (2022). A 14-day ecological momentary assessment study on whether resilience and early family risk moderate daily stress and affect on cortisol diurnal slope. Scientific Reports, 12(1), 1240. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-05277-w.

    Article  ADS  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Watson, D., & Clark, L. A. (1984). Negative affectivity: The disposition to experience aversive emotional states. Psychological Bulletin, 96(3), 465–490. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.96.3.465.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 1063–1070.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weathers, F. W., Litz, B. T., Keane, T. M., Palmieri, P. A., Marx, B. P., & Schnurr, P. P. (2013). The PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5). Scale available from the National Center for PTSD at. www.ptsd.va.gov.

  • Weems, C. F., Piña, A. A., Costa, N. M., Watts, S. E., Taylor, L. K., & Cannon, M. F. (2007). Pre-disaster trait anxiety and negative affect predict posttraumatic stress in youth after Hurricane Katrina. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 75, 154–159.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Woodward, S. H., Jamison, A. L., Gala, S., Lawlor, C., Villasenor, D., Tamayo, G., & Puckett, M. (2021). Tracking positive and negative affect in PTSD inpatients during a service dog intervention. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 89(6), 551–562. https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000572.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zautra, A. J., Berkhof, J., & Nicolson, N. A. (2002). Changes in affect interrelations as a function of stressful events. Cognition and Emotion, 16, 309–318.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zoellner, L. A., Ojalehto, H. J., Rosencrans, P., Walker, R. W., Garcia, N. M., Sheikh, I. S., & Bedard-Gilligan, M. A. (2020). Anxiety and fear in PTSD. In M. T. Tull & N. A. Kimbrel (Eds.), Emotion in posttraumatic stress disorder: Etiology, assessment, neurobiology, and treatment (pp. 43–63). Elsevier Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-816022-0.00002-8.

Download references

Acknowledgements

Not applicable.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, Vanderbilt University, 301 Wilson Hall, 111 21st Avenue South, Nashville, TN, 37203, USA

    Bunmi O. Olatunji, Qimin Liu, Rebecca C. Cox & Sarah C. Jessup

  2. University of Colorado-Boulder, Boulder, USA

    Rebecca C. Cox

Authors
  1. Bunmi O. Olatunji
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Qimin Liu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Rebecca C. Cox
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Sarah C. Jessup
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Bunmi O. Olatunji.

Ethics declarations

Ethics Approval

Procedures were approved by the appropriate IRB and the research was conducted in accordance with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration.

Consent to Publish

The authors affirm that human research participants provided informed consent to publication of the aggregate data presented.

Experiment Participants

Informed consent was obtained from all participants included in the study.

Role of Funding

Not applicable.

Conflict of interest

The authors have no conflict of interest to declare.

Additional information

Declarations.

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Olatunji, B.O., Liu, Q., Cox, R.C. et al. Ecological Momentary Assessment of Positive and Negative Affect in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. J Psychopathol Behav Assess (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-024-10126-3

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-024-10126-3

Keywords

Search

Navigation