Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Hydrochemical characteristics, evolution and health risk assessment of surface water and groundwater in Lhasa, China

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Environmental Earth Sciences Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Lhasa, perched atop the Qinghai Tibet Plateau, has particular hydrochemical evolution characteristics as well as a distinct biological habitat. Rapid development has jeopardized the surface and groundwater. To maintain water safety and community health, a scientific examination of groundwater quality and human health problems is essential. A complete investigation of Lhasa's hydrochemical evolution was carried out using 65 water samples, including 14 surface water samples and 51 groundwater samples, and the quality of the surface and groundwater was assessed. Health hazards were also assessed. According to the findings, both surface water and groundwater have decreased salinity, hardness, and alkalinity. According to the Comprehensive Weighted Water Quality Index statistics, the average water quality indices for surface water and groundwater are 16.28 and 14.14, respectively, indicating good water quality. Surface and groundwater are suitable for agricultural irrigation due to their low salt absorption rates. According to the study of hydrochemical development and regulating factors, rock weathering is a phenomenon that affects both surface water and groundwater. Water is unaffected by precipitation or human actions. According to the human health risk assessment, children have a higher risk of non-carcinogenicity than adults, and the primary exposure route is daily oral ingestion. Non-carcinogenic health risk indices for nitrate consumption in children and adults are 0.220 and 0.136, respectively, indicating a lower non-carcinogenic risk of nitrate in the region's surface and groundwater, and the younger the age, the higher the non-carcinogenic health risk of nitrate intake. This study provides data support for local water resource management and optimization, as well as a reference for the chemical evolution of urban water and the evaluation of nitrate non-carcinogenic risk in global alpine regions.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7

Similar content being viewed by others

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

References

  • Adimalla N, Qian H (2021) Groundwater chemistry, distribution and potential health risk appraisal of nitrate enriched groundwater: a case study from the semi-urban region of South India. Ecotox Environ Safe 207:111277

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bahita TA, Swain S, Pandey P, Pandey A (2021) Assessment of heavy metal contamination in livestock drinking water of Upper Ganga Canal (Roorkee City, India). Arabian J Geosci 14:1–13

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cai Y, You CF, Wu SF, Cai WJ, Guo LD (2020) Seasonal variations in strontium and carbon isotope systematics in the Lower Mississippi river: implications for chemical weathering. Chem Geol 553:119810

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Din IU, Muhammad S, Rehman I (2023) Groundwater quality assessment for drinking and irrigation purposes in the Hangu District. Pakistan J Food Compos Anal 115:104919

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fan B, Zhao Z, Tao F, Liu B, Tao Z, Gao S, Zhang L (2014) Characteristics of carbonate, evaporite and silicate weathering in Huanghe River basin: a comparison among the upstream, midstream and downstream. J Asian Earth Sci 96:17–26

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gao B, Gao L, Gao J, Xu D, Wang Q, Sun K (2019) Simultaneous evaluations of occurrence and probabilistic human health risk associated with trace elements in typical drinking water sources from major river basins in China. Sci Total Environ 666:139–146

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ghezzi L, Iaccarino S, Carosi R, Montomoli C, Simonetti M, Paudyal KR, Cidu R, Petrini R (2019) Water quality and solute sources in the Marsyangdi river system of Higher Himalayan range (West-Central Nepal). Sci Total Environ 677:580–589

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gibbs RJ (1970) Mechanisms controlling world water chemistry. Science 170:1088–1090

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gil-Márquez JM, Andreo B, Mudarra M (2022) Studying hydrogeochemical processes to understand hydrodiversity and the related natural and cultural heritage The case of Los Hoyos area (South Spain). Catena 216:106422

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harkness JS, Darrah TH, Moore MT, Whyte CJ, Mathewson PD, Cook T, Vengosh A (2017) Naturally occurring versus anthropogenic sources of elevated Molybdenum in groundwater: evidence for geogenic contamination from Southeast Wisconsin, United States. Environ Sci Technol 51:12190–12199

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • He J, Hong YB, Kong LJ, Dan Z, Lv XB, Chen GY, Tang OJ, Chen DY (2022) Spatial distribution and management of the energy potential of municipal solid waste incineration: a case study of Lhasa. China J Environ Manage 322:116094

    Google Scholar 

  • Hosono T, Hossain S, Shimada J (2020) Hydrobiogeochemical evolution along the regional groundwater flow systems in volcanic aquifers in Kumamoto. Japan Environ Earth Sci 79:1–19

    Google Scholar 

  • Hu MP, Zhang YF, Wu KB, Shen H, Yao MY, Dahlgren RA, Chen DJ (2020) Assessment of streamflow components and hydrologic transit times using stable isotopes of oxygen and hydrogen in waters of a subtropical watershed in eastern China. J Hydrol 589:125363

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Huang X, Sillanpää M, Gjessing ET, Vogt RD (2009) Water quality in the Tibetan Plateau: Major ions and trace elements in the headwaters of four major Asian rivers. Sci Total Environ 407:6242–6254

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Huang LW, Sun ZY, Zhou AG, Bi JB, Liu YD (2022) Source and enrichment mechanism of fluoride in groundwater of the Hotan Oasis within the Tarim Basin. Northwestern China Environ Pollut 300:118962

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Islam ARMT, Siddiqua MT, Zahid A, Tasnim SS, Rahman MM (2020) Drinking appraisal of coastal groundwater in Bangladesh: an approach of multi-hazards towards water security and health safety. Chemosphere 255:126933

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jannat JN, Khan MSI, Islam HMT, Islam MS, Khan R, Siddique MAB, Varo M, Tokatli C, Pal SC, Islam A, Idrisi AM, Malafaia G, Islam ARMT (2022) Hydro-chemical assessment of fluoride and nitrate in groundwater from east and west coasts of Bangladesh and India. J Clean Prod 372:133675

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ji W, Xiao J, Gurpal T, Li Z (2021) Nitrate-nitrogen transport in streamwater and groundwater in a loess covered region: sources, drivers, and spatiotemporal variation. Sci Total Environ 761:143278

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jin K, Rao WB, Tan HB, Song YX, Yong B, Zheng FW, Chen TQ, Han LF (2018) H-O isotopic and chemical characteristics of a precipitation-lake water-groundwater system in a desert area. J Hydrol 559:848–860

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Juntakut P, Snow DD, Haacker EM, Ray C (2019) The long term effect of agricultural, vadose zone and climatic factors on nitrate contamination in Nebraska’s groundwater system. J Contam Hydrol 220:33–48

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Karunanidhi D, Aravinthasamy P, Roy PD, Praveenkumar RM, Prasanth K, Selvapraveen S, Thowbeekrahman A, Subramani T, Srinivasamoorthy K (2020) Evaluation of non-carcinogenic risks due to fluoride and nitrate contaminations in a groundwater of an urban part (Coimbatore region) of south India. Environ Monit Assess 192(2):102

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Krishnamoorthy N, Thirumalai R, Sundar ML, Anusuya M, Kumar PM, Hemalatha E, Prasad MM, Munjal N (2023) Assessment of underground water quality and water quality index across the Noyyal River basin of Tirupur District in South India. Urban Clim 49:101436

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li ZJ, Li ZX, Song LL, Ma JZ, Song Y (2018) Environment significance and hydrochemical characteristics of suprapermafrost water in the source region of the Yangtze river. Sci Total Environ 644:1141–1151

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li Z, Yang Q, Yang Y, Ma H, Wang H, Luo J, Bian J, Martin JD (2019) Isotopic and geochemical interpretation of groundwater under the influences of anthropogenic activities. J Hydrol 576:685–697

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li D, Tian P, Luo H, Hu T, Dong B, Cui Y, Khan S, Luo Y (2020) Impacts of land use and land cover changes on regional climate in the Lhasa River basin. Tibetan Plateau Sci Total Environ 742:140570

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Li X, Qi JH, Yi L, Xu M, Zhang XY, Zhang Q, Tang YG (2021) Hydrochemical characteristics and evolution of geothermal waters in the eastern Himalayan syntaxis geothermal field, southern Tibet. Geothermics 97:102233

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li L, Lu HJ, Garzione C, Fan MJ (2022a) Cenozoic paleoelevation history of the Lunpola Basin in Central Tibet: New evidence from volcanic glass hydrogen isotopes and a critical review. Earth-Sci Rev 231:104068

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li N, Yang WG, Zhu LD, Xie L, Zhong Y, Mai YJ, Zhou Y, Zhang HL (2022b) Permian arc magmatism in southern Tibet: Implications for the subduction and accretion of the Zhikong-Sumdo Paleo-Tethys Ocean. Gondwana Res 111:265–279

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liu Y, Su W, Zhu Y, Xiao L, Hu T (2020) Endocrine disrupting compounds in the middle and lower reaches of the Lhasa River Basin: Occurrence, distribution, and risk assessment. Sci Total Environ 727:138694

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liu J, Peng Y, Li C, Gao Z, Chen S (2021a) An investigation into the hydrochemistry, quality and risk to human health of groundwater in the central region of Shandong province. North China J Clean Prod 282:125416

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liu J, Peng Y, Li C, Gao Z, Chen S (2021b) Characterization of the hydrochemistry of water resources of the Weibei Plain, Northern China, as well as an assessment of the risk of high groundwater nitrate levels to human health. Environ Pollut 268:115947

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ma TT, Weynell M, Li SL, Liu Y, Chetelat B, Zhong J, Xu S, Liu CQ (2020) Lithium isotope compositions of the Yangtze River headwaters: Weathering in high-relief catchments. Geochim Cosmochim Ac 280:46–65

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mao G, Duan X, Niu Z, Xu J, Xiao X, Huang X, Chen H, Mehr F, Moti R, Qiao Z (2023) Application of source-sink theory and MCR model to assess hydrochemicalchange risk in Lhasa River basin, Tibet. China Environ Impact Asses 101:107124

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miao F, Zhang Y, Li Y, Liang X, Lin Q, Zhou Y (2021) Establishing a weighted methodology for human health risk assessment of cadmium based on its equilibrium speciation in groundwater. J Clean Prod 322:129053

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Panda B, Chidambaram S, Snow D, Malakar A, Singh DK, Ramanathan AL (2022) Source apportionment and health risk assessment of nitrate in foothill aquifers of Western Ghats. South India Ecotox Environ Safe 229:113075

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Peng H, Yang W, Ferrer ASN, Xiong S, Li X, Niu G, Lu T (2022) Hydrochemical characteristics and health risk assessment of groundwater in karst areas of southwest China: A case study of Bama. Guangxi J Clean Prod 341:130872

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pérez-Moreno SM, Guerrero JL, Mosqueda F, Gázquez MJ, Bolívar JP (2020) Hydrochemical behaviour of long-lived natural radionuclides in Spanish groundwaters. CATENA 191:104558

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Qasemi M, Farhang M, Biglari H, Afsharnia M, Ojrati A, Khani F, Samiee M, Zarei A (2018) Health risk assessments due to nitrate levels in drinking water in villages of Azadshahr, northeastern Iran. Environ Earth Sci 77(23):782

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Qu B, Zhang Y, Kang S, Sillanpää M (2019) Water quality in the Tibetan Plateau: Major ions and trace elements in rivers of the “Water Tower of Asia.” Sci Total Environ 649:571–581

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Qu S, Shi Z, Liang X, Wang G, Han J (2021) Multiple factors control groundwater chemistry and quality of multi-layer groundwater system in Northwest China coalfield — using self-organizing maps (SOM). J Geochem Explor 227:106795

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rahman A, Mondal NC, Tiwari KK (2021) Anthropogenic nitrate in groundwater and its health risks in the view of background concentration in a semi-arid area of Rajasthan. India Sci Rep 11:9279

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rahman ATMS, Kono Y, Hosono T (2022) Self-organizing map improves understanding on the hydrochemical processes in aquifer systems. Sci Totalenviron 846:157281

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rao WB, Zheng FW, Tan HB, Yong B, Jin K, Wang S, Zhang WB, Chen TQ, Wang YN (2019) Major ion chemistry of a representative river in South-central China: Runoff effects and controlling mechanisms. J Hazard Mater 378:120755

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ravindra K, Thind PS, Mor S, Singh T, Mor S (2019) Evaluation of groundwater contamination in Chandigarh: source identification and health risk assessment. Environ Pollut 255:113062

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Şener Ş, Şener E, Davraz A (2017) Evaluation of water quality using water quality index (WQI) method and GIS in Aksu River (SW-Turkey). Sci Total Environ 584–585:131–144

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shen BB, Wu JL, Zhan SE, Jin M, Saparov AS, Abuduwaili J (2021) Spatial variations and controls on the hydrochemistry of surface waters across the Ili-Balkhash Basin, arid Central Asia. J Hydrol 600:126565

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shenbagalakshmi G, Shenbagarajan A, Thavasi S, Nayagam MG, Venkatesh R (2023) Determination of water quality indicator using deep hierarchical cluster analysis. Urban Clim 49:101468

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shi HY, Fu XD, Chen J (2014) Spatial distribution of monthly potential evaporation over mountainous regions: case of the Lhasa River basin. China Hydrol Sci J 59(10):1856–1871

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sinduja M, Sathya V, Maheswari M, Dinesh GK, Prasad S, Kalpana P (2023) Groundwater quality assessment for agricultural purposes at Vellore district of Southern India: a geospatial based study. Urban Clim 47:101368

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Srivastava SK (2019) Assessment of groundwater quality for the suitability of irrigation and its impacts on crop yields in the Guna district. India Agr Water Manage 216:224–241

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taloor AK, Bala A, Mehta P (2023) Human health risk assessment and pollution index of groundwater in Jammu plains of India: a geospatial approach. Chemosphere 313:137329

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tong S, Li H, Tudi M, Yuan X, Yang L (2021) Comparison of characteristics, water quality and health risk assessment of trace elements in surface water and groundwater in China. Ecotox Environ Safe 219:112283

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • USEPA, 1989. Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund, Vol I, Human Health Evaluation Manual (Part A). Office of Emergency and Remedial Response, Washington, DC.

  • Wang H, Lu K, Shen C, Song X, Hu B, Liu G (2021) Human health risk assessment of groundwater nitrate at a two geomorphic units transition zone in northern China. J Environ Sci 110:38–47

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wu J, Lu J (2021) Spatial scale effects of landscape metrics on stream water quality and their seasonal changes. Water Res 191:116811

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wu WY, Liao RK, Hu YQ, Wang H, Liu HL, Yin SY (2020) Quantitative assessment of groundwater pollution risk in reclaimed water irrigation areas of northern China. Environ Pollut 261:114173

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wu ZS, Lai XJ, Li KY (2021) Water quality assessment of rivers in Lake Chaohu Basin (China) using water quality index. Ecol Indic 121:107021

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Xiao J, Wang L, Deng L, Jin Z (2019) Characteristics, sources, water quality and health risk assessment of trace elements in river water and well water in the Chinese Loess Plateau. Sci Total Environ 650(Pt 2):2004–2012

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Xu JY, Bai Y, You HL, Wang XW, Ma ZF, Zhang HW (2022a) Water quality assessment and the influence of landscape metrics at multiple scales in Poyang Lake basin. Ecol Indic 141:109096

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Xu P, Bian JM, Li YH, Wu JJ, Sun XQ, Wang Y (2022b) Characteristics of fluoride migration and enrichment in groundwater under the influence of natural background and anthropogenic activities. Environ Pollut 314:120208

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yang H, Xiao Y, Hao Q, Wang L, Zhang Y, Liu K, Zhu Y, Liu G, Yin S, Xie Z (2023) Geochemical characteristics, mechanisms and suitability for sustainable municipal and agricultural water supply of confined groundwater in central North China plain. Urban Clim 49:101459

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yidana SM, Yidana A (2010) Assessing water quality using water quality index and multivariate analysis. Environ Earth Sci 59:1461–1573

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yu YL, Jin Z, Chu GC, Zhang J, Wang YQ, Zhao YL (2020) Effects of valley reshaping and damming on surface and groundwater nitrate on the Chinese Loess Plateau. J Hydrol 584:124702

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yuan R, Li Z, Guo S (2023) Health risks of shallow groundwater in the five basins of Shanxi, China: Geographical, geological and human activity roles. Environ Pollut 316:120524

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhai YZ, Zhao XB, Teng YG, Li X, Zhang JJ, Wu J et al (2017) Groundwater nitrate pollution and human health risk assessment by using HHRA model in an agricultural area. NE China Ecotox Environ Safe 137:130–142

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang Y, Li F, Li J, Liu Q (2015) Spatial distribution, potential sources, and risk assessment of trace metals of groundwater in the North China plain. Hum Ecol Risk Assess 21(3):726–743

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang XW, He JT, He BN, Sun JC (2019) Assessment, formation mechanism, and different source contributions of dissolved salt pollution in the shallow groundwater of Hutuo river alluvial-pluvial fan in the North China Plain. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 26:35742–35756

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang M, Jing Y, Zhang J, Sheng Z, Hou Y, Xu J, Chen B, Liu J, Wang M, Hou X (2022) Performance prediction of magnetorheological fluid-based liquid gating membrane by Kriging machine learning method. Interdiscip Mater 1(1):157–169

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang T, Wang P, He J, Liu D, Wang M, Wang M, Xia S (2023) Hydrochemical characteristics, water quality, and evolution of groundwater in Northeast China. Water 15(14):2669

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao D, Wang GC, Liao F, Yang N, Jiang WJ, Guo L, Liu CL, Shi ZM (2018) Groundwater-surface water interactions derived by hydrochemical and isotopic (222Rn, deuterium, oxygen-18) tracers in the Nomhon area, Qaidam Basin, NW China. J Hydrol 565:650–661

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao H, Dong W, Deng Y, Chen L, Zhao C, Zhang C, Zhou J, Qu Y, Li Y, Li D, Yu S (2022) Biomass-based biomimetic-oriented Janus nanoarchitecture for efficient heavy-metal enrichment and interfacial solar water sanitation. Interdiscip Mater 1(4):537–547

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhong C, Wang H, Yang Q (2022) Hydrochemical interpretation of groundwater in Yinchuan basin using self-organizing maps and hierarchical clustering. Chemosphere 309(Part 2):136787

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhu AP, Yang ZG, Liang ZB, Gao L, Li R, Hou L, Li SH, Xie ZL, Wu Y, Chen JY, Cao LX (2020) Integrating hydrochemical and biological approaches to investigate the surface water and groundwater interactions in the hyporheic zone of the Liuxi River basin, southern China. J Hydrol 583:124622

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This work is supported by the special fund of geological survey of China Geological Survey (DD20190534; DD20230424; DD20230456), National Key R&D Program of China (No.2021YFA0715901).

Funding

The funding was supported by China Geological Survey (DD20190534; DD20230424; DD20230456), National Key R&D Program of China (No.2021YFA0715901).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan, 430070, China

    Tao Zhang & Shibin Xia

  2. Center for Hydrogeology and Environmental Geology, China Geological Survey, Baoding, 071051, China

    Tao Zhang, Mingguo Wang, Jin He, Jinwei Liu & Lei Gong

Authors
  1. Tao Zhang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Mingguo Wang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Jin He
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Jinwei Liu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Lei Gong
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Shibin Xia
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

Writing - Review & Editing: Tao Zhang; Writing - Original Draft: Lei Gong; Jinwei Liu; Supervision: Shibin Xia; Visualization: Jin He; Funding acquisition: Mingguo Wang. All authors reviewed the manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Shibin Xia.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors have no conficts of interest to declare.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary Information

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary file1 (DOCX 15 KB)

Supplementary file2 (DOCX 14 KB)

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Zhang, T., Wang, M., He, J. et al. Hydrochemical characteristics, evolution and health risk assessment of surface water and groundwater in Lhasa, China. Environ Earth Sci 83, 166 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-024-11439-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-024-11439-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation