Abstract
It has been well documented that formulaic language (such as collocations; e.g., provide information) enjoys a processing advantage over novel language (e.g., compare information). In natural language use, however, many formulaic sequences are often inserted with words intervening in between the individual constituents (e.g., provided information → provide some of the information). Whether or not the processing advantage persists in nonadjacent forms remains largely unknown. The present study thus sought to address this gap by recording the eye movements of Chinese native speakers when they were reading sentences embedded with formulaic sequences (high frequency collocations) versus novel phrases (low frequency controls), in their adjacent (e.g., 解决困难 ‘resolve difficulties’ vs. 经历困难 ‘experience difficulties’), short-insertion (e.g., 解决这些困难 ‘resolve these difficulties’ vs. 经历这些困难 ‘experience these difficulties’), and long-insertion forms (e.g., 解决了这么多困难 ‘resolved so many difficulties’ vs. 经历了这么多困难 ‘experienced so many difficulties’). Results suggested that the processing advantage for formulaic language over novel language existed not only in their adjacent form, but also in their short-insertion form, albeit the magnitude of the processing advantage diminished with the increase of insertion length. The persistence of FL processing advantage is in line with usage-based approach to language learning, processing, and use.
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Notes
Perceptual span reflects how much information can be extracted in a single fixation during natural reading.
Among the 13 phrase pairs, eight pairs were Adjective + Noun phrases and five pairs were Verb + Noun phrases.
LS was examined only for the phrase-final word analysis. For the other three measures in the phrase-final word analysis, trials in which the word was skipped during first pass reading were excluded. This is due to the consideration that in single word analysis, including any skipped items in the calculation of means or in any further analysis for eye-tracking measures (duration measures in particular) would affect the accuracy of results (e.g., Conklin et al., 2018; see also Jiang et al., 2020; Vilkaitė, 2016). This exclusion resulted in 23.76% of data loss.
Part of speech of the phrase (Adjectiv + Noun vs. Verb + Noun) was added to the initial models but deleted from the fitted models. Models with and without this variable showed the same pattern of results.
References
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Acknowledgements
This research is developled from one chapter of the doctoral thesis of the author after graduation. The thesis was supervised by Drs. Anna Siyanova and Gina Grimshaw. This research was supported by a National Social Science Fund of China (Grant No. 23CYY047) and a research grant from the Wellington Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences at Victoria University of Wellington (Grant No. 220797) to the author. The author would like to thank the reviewers for their insightful comments. The author would also like to thank Victoria University of Wellington for the use of the eye-tracking lab.
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Appendices
Appendix 1
Frequency Information and Association Strength of the Target Items in Their Original Form
Item | Phrase type | Part of speech | Phrase length | Phrase frequency | Word 1 frequency | Word 2 frequency | Association strength |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
白衬衫 | Collocation | A + N | 3 | 1411 | 85,388 | 17,441 | 0.00 |
黄衬衫 | Control | A + N | 3 | 26 | 47,373 | 17,441 | 0.00 |
大船 | Collocation | A + N | 2 | 2883 | 921,167 | 195,636 | 0.00 |
真船 | Control | A + N | 2 | 6 | 2,233,287 | 195,636 | 0.00 |
精彩节目 | Collocation | A + N | 4 | 637 | 58,941 | 76,333 | 0.10 |
欢乐节目 | Control | A + N | 4 | 2 | 41,655 | 76,333 | 0.10 |
漂亮的女人 | Collocation | A + N | 5 | 1180 | 34,155 | 266,307 | 0.10 |
热情的女人 | Control | A + N | 5 | 33 | 78,651 | 266,307 | 0.10 |
新的变化 | Collocation | A + N | 4 | 1555 | 314,867 | 266,307 | 0.00 |
好的变化 | Control | A + N | 4 | 41 | 284,481 | 266,307 | 0.00 |
新鲜的空气 | Collocation | A + N | 5 | 554 | 7761 | 78,072 | 0.20 |
北方的空气 | Control | A + N | 5 | 2 | 4229 | 78,072 | 0.00 |
幸福的生活 | Collocation | A + N | 5 | 1393 | 43,175 | 16,717 | 0.10 |
安全的生活 | Control | A + N | 5 | 27 | 24,365 | 16,717 | 0.00 |
严重的后果 | Collocation | A + N | 5 | 975 | 51,512 | 353,872 | 0.10 |
不同的后果 | Control | A + N | 5 | 18 | 117,559 | 353,872 | 0.00 |
吃糖 | Collocation | V + N | 2 | 2629 | 279,736 | 124,117 | 0.00 |
分糖 | Control | V + N | 2 | 50 | 73,557 | 124,117 | 0.00 |
打扫卫生 | Collocation | V + N | 4 | 2459 | 10,903 | 236,733 | 0.30 |
影响卫生 | Control | V + N | 4 | 14 | 33,529 | 236,733 | 0.00 |
交朋友 | Collocation | V + N | 3 | 4487 | 61,896 | 353,872 | 0.00 |
害朋友 | Control | V + N | 3 | 20 | 11,160 | 353,872 | 0.00 |
解决困难 | Collocation | V + N | 4 | 1556 | 84,785 | 180,075 | 0.00 |
经历困难 | Control | V + N | 4 | 13 | 89,403 | 180,075 | 0.40 |
洗碗 | Collocation | V + N | 2 | 4142 | 38,968 | 62,988 | 0.00 |
换碗 | Control | V + N | 2 | 4 | 58,731 | 62,988 | 0.00 |
Appendix 2
Cloze Probability of the Target Items
Item | Phrase type | Part of speech | Insertion length | Cloze probability |
|---|---|---|---|---|
白衬衫 | Collocation | A + N | 0 | 0.30 |
黄衬衫 | Control | A + N | 0 | 0.10 |
白色长衬衫 | Collocation | A + N | 2 | 0.00 |
黄色长衬衫 | Control | A + N | 2 | 0.00 |
白格子长袖衬衫 | Collocation | A + N | 4 | 0.10 |
黄格子长袖衬衫 | Control | A + N | 4 | 0.30 |
大船 | Collocation | A + N | 0 | 0.00 |
真船 | Control | A + N | 0 | 0.00 |
大的客船 | Collocation | A + N | 2 | 0.00 |
真的客船 | Control | A + N | 2 | 0.10 |
大的远洋货船 | Collocation | A + N | 4 | 0.40 |
真的远洋货船 | Control | A + N | 4 | 0.10 |
精彩节目 | Collocation | A + N | 0 | 0.10 |
欢乐节目 | Control | A + N | 0 | 0.10 |
精彩的小节目 | Collocation | A + N | 2 | 0.00 |
欢乐的小节目 | Control | A + N | 2 | 0.00 |
精彩而有趣的节目 | Collocation | A + N | 4 | 0.20 |
欢乐而有趣的节目 | Control | A + N | 4 | 0.00 |
漂亮的女人 | Collocation | A + N | 0 | 0.10 |
热情的女人 | Control | A + N | 0 | 0.00 |
漂亮的中国女人 | Collocation | A + N | 2 | 0.10 |
热情的中国女人 | Control | A + N | 2 | 0.00 |
漂亮而又聪明的女人 | Collocation | A + N | 4 | 0.00 |
热情而又聪明的女人 | Control | A + N | 4 | 0.10 |
新的变化 | Collocation | A + N | 0 | 0.00 |
好的变化 | Control | A + N | 0 | 0.00 |
新的社会变化 | Collocation | A + N | 2 | 0.00 |
好的社会变化 | Control | A + N | 2 | 0.00 |
新的一些环境变化 | Collocation | A + N | 4 | 0.20 |
好的一些环境变化 | Control | A + N | 4 | 0.00 |
新鲜的空气 | Collocation | A + N | 0 | 0.00 |
北方的空气 | Control | A + N | 0 | 0.00 |
新鲜的海边空气 | Collocation | A + N | 2 | 0.00 |
北方的海边空气 | Control | A + N | 2 | 0.00 |
新鲜的夏日里的空气 | Collocation | A + N | 4 | 0.10 |
北方的夏日里的空气 | Control | A + N | 4 | 0.00 |
幸福的生活 | Collocation | A + N | 0 | 0.10 |
安全的生活 | Control | A + N | 0 | 0.00 |
幸福的童年生活 | Collocation | A + N | 2 | 0.10 |
安全的童年生活 | Control | A + N | 2 | 0.30 |
幸福而又安静的生活 | Collocation | A + N | 4 | 0.20 |
安全而又安静的生活 | Control | A + N | 4 | 0.00 |
严重的后果 | Collocation | A + N | 0 | 0.00 |
不同的后果 | Control | A + N | 0 | 0.00 |
严重的法律后果 | Collocation | A + N | 2 | 0.10 |
不同的法律后果 | Control | A + N | 2 | 0.00 |
严重的社会安全后果 | Collocation | A + N | 4 | 0.00 |
不同的社会安全后果 | Control | A + N | 4 | 0.00 |
吃糖 | Collocation | V + N | 0 | 0.00 |
分糖 | Control | V + N | 0 | 0.00 |
吃块奶糖 | Collocation | V + N | 2 | 0.10 |
分块奶糖 | Control | V + N | 2 | 0.00 |
吃这些水果糖 | Collocation | V + N | 4 | 0.00 |
分这些水果糖 | Control | V + N | 4 | 0.00 |
打扫卫生 | Collocation | V + N | 0 | 0.10 |
影响卫生 | Control | V + N | 0 | 0.00 |
打扫房间卫生 | Collocation | V + N | 2 | 0.30 |
影响房间卫生 | Control | V + N | 2 | 0.10 |
打扫教室里的卫生 | Collocation | V + N | 4 | 0.40 |
影响教室里的卫生 | Control | V + N | 4 | 0.10 |
交朋友 | Collocation | V + N | 0 | 0.00 |
害朋友 | Control | V + N | 0 | 0.00 |
交这个朋友 | Collocation | V + N | 2 | 0.00 |
害这个朋友 | Control | V + N | 2 | 0.00 |
交我带来的朋友 | Collocation | V + N | 4 | 0.10 |
害我带来的朋友 | Control | V + N | 4 | 0.30 |
解决困难 | Collocation | V + N | 0 | 0.00 |
经历困难 | Control | V + N | 0 | 0.30 |
解决这些困难 | Collocation | V + N | 2 | 0.00 |
经历这些困难 | Control | V + N | 2 | 0.00 |
解决了这么多困难 | Collocation | V + N | 4 | 0.20 |
经历了这么多困难 | Control | V + N | 4 | 0.20 |
洗碗 | Collocation | V + N | 0 | 0.00 |
换碗 | Control | V + N | 0 | 0.00 |
洗几个碗 | Collocation | V + N | 2 | 0.00 |
换几个碗 | Control | V + N | 2 | 0.00 |
洗个白色的碗 | Collocation | V + N | 4 | 0.00 |
换个白色的碗 | Control | V + N | 4 | 0.00 |
Appendix 3
Naturalness of the Target Sentences
Sentence | Phrase type | Part of speech | Insertion length | Sentence length | Sentence naturalness |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
这件白衬衫是他哥哥的。 | Collocation | A + N | 0 | 10 | 10.00 |
这件黄衬衫是他哥哥的。 | Control | A + N | 0 | 10 | 10.00 |
这件白色长衬衫是他哥哥的。 | Collocation | A + N | 2 | 12 | 9.40 |
这件黄色长衬衫是他哥哥的。 | Control | A + N | 2 | 12 | 9.50 |
这件白格子长袖衬衫是他哥哥的。 | Collocation | A + N | 4 | 14 | 8.50 |
这件黄格子长袖衬衫是他哥哥的。 | Control | A + N | 4 | 14 | 9.50 |
这里怎么会有大船呢。 | Collocation | A + N | 0 | 9 | 7.30 |
这里怎么会有真船呢。 | Control | A + N | 0 | 9 | 7.70 |
这里怎么会有大的客船呢。 | Collocation | A + N | 2 | 11 | 7.60 |
这里怎么会有真的客船呢。 | Control | A + N | 2 | 11 | 7.85 |
这里怎么会有大的远洋货船呢。 | Collocation | A + N | 4 | 13 | 8.90 |
这里怎么会有真的远洋货船呢。 | Control | A + N | 4 | 13 | 8.40 |
我们一起去看那个精彩节目吧。 | Collocation | A + N | 0 | 13 | 8.50 |
我们一起去看那个欢乐节目吧。 | Control | A + N | 0 | 13 | 7.75 |
我们一起去看那个精彩的小节目吧。 | Collocation | A + N | 2 | 15 | 8.60 |
我们一起去看那个欢乐的小节目吧。 | Control | A + N | 2 | 15 | 8.10 |
我们一起去看那个精彩而有趣的节目吧。 | Collocation | A + N | 4 | 17 | 9.35 |
我们一起去看那个欢乐而有趣的节目吧。 | Control | A + N | 4 | 17 | 9.20 |
这个漂亮的女人是我的朋友。 | Collocation | A + N | 0 | 12 | 10.00 |
这个热情的女人是我的朋友。 | Control | A + N | 0 | 12 | 9.85 |
这个漂亮的中国女人是我的朋友。 | Collocation | A + N | 2 | 14 | 8.80 |
这个热情的中国女人是我的朋友。 | Control | A + N | 2 | 14 | 9.10 |
这个漂亮而又聪明的女人是我的朋友。 | Collocation | A + N | 4 | 16 | 8.30 |
这个热情而又聪明的女人是我的朋友。 | Control | A + N | 4 | 16 | 8.70 |
这里会有新的变化发生。 | Collocation | A + N | 0 | 10 | 7.50 |
这里会有好的变化发生。 | Control | A + N | 0 | 10 | 7.25 |
这里会有新的社会变化发生。 | Collocation | A + N | 2 | 12 | 6.50 |
这里会有好的社会变化发生。 | Control | A + N | 2 | 12 | 6.80 |
这里会有新的一些环境变化发生。 | Collocation | A + N | 4 | 14 | 6.40 |
这里会有好的一些环境变化发生。 | Control | A + N | 4 | 14 | 6.20 |
我喜欢新鲜的空气的味道。 | Collocation | A + N | 0 | 11 | 9.25 |
我喜欢北方的空气的味道。 | Control | A + N | 0 | 11 | 8.10 |
我喜欢新鲜的海边空气的味道。 | Collocation | A + N | 2 | 13 | 7.60 |
我喜欢北方的海边空气的味道。 | Control | A + N | 2 | 13 | 8.63 |
我喜欢新鲜的夏日里的空气的味道。 | Collocation | A + N | 4 | 15 | 6.10 |
我喜欢北方的夏日里的空气的味道。 | Control | A + N | 4 | 15 | 6.80 |
像这样幸福的生活她永远不会忘记。 | Collocation | A + N | 0 | 15 | 8.20 |
像这样安全的生活她永远不会忘记。 | Control | A + N | 0 | 15 | 7.85 |
像这样幸福的童年生活她永远不会忘记。 | Collocation | A + N | 2 | 17 | 8.50 |
像这样安全的童年生活她永远不会忘记。 | Control | A + N | 2 | 17 | 7.55 |
像这样幸福而又安静的生活她永远不会忘记。 | Collocation | A + N | 4 | 19 | 8.80 |
像这样安全而又安静的生活她永远不会忘记。 | Control | A + N | 4 | 19 | 7.70 |
这些严重的后果他从来都没有想过。 | Collocation | A + N | 0 | 15 | 8.70 |
这些不同的后果他从来都没有想过。 | Control | A + N | 0 | 15 | 8.15 |
这些严重的法律后果他从来都没有想过。 | Collocation | A + N | 2 | 17 | 8.00 |
这些不同的法律后果他从来都没有想过。 | Control | A + N | 2 | 17 | 7.10 |
这些严重的社会安全后果他从来都没有想过。 | Collocation | A + N | 4 | 19 | 6.50 |
这些不同的社会安全后果他从来都没有想过。 | Control | A + N | 4 | 19 | 6.20 |
我们一起吃糖吧。 | Collocation | V + N | 0 | 7 | 9.50 |
我们一起分糖吧。 | Control | V + N | 0 | 7 | 8.65 |
我们一起吃块奶糖吧。 | Collocation | V + N | 2 | 9 | 8.30 |
我们一起分块奶糖吧。 | Control | V + N | 2 | 9 | 8.05 |
我们一起吃这些水果糖吧。 | Collocation | V + N | 4 | 11 | 9.40 |
我们一起分这些水果糖吧。 | Control | V + N | 4 | 11 | 9.50 |
我并不想打扫卫生啊。 | Collocation | V + N | 0 | 9 | 7.95 |
我并不想影响卫生啊。 | Control | V + N | 0 | 9 | 7.20 |
我并不想打扫房间卫生啊。 | Collocation | V + N | 2 | 11 | 7.95 |
我并不想影响房间卫生啊。 | Control | V + N | 2 | 11 | 7.60 |
我并不想打扫教室里的卫生啊。 | Collocation | V + N | 4 | 13 | 8.40 |
我并不想影响教室里的卫生啊。 | Control | V + N | 4 | 13 | 7.70 |
原来他是这样交朋友的啊。 | Collocation | V + N | 0 | 11 | 8.15 |
原来他是这样害朋友的啊。 | Control | V + N | 0 | 11 | 8.75 |
原来他是这样交这个朋友的啊。 | Collocation | V + N | 2 | 13 | 8.20 |
原来他是这样害这个朋友的啊。 | Control | V + N | 2 | 13 | 8.75 |
原来他是这样交我带来的朋友的啊。 | Collocation | V + N | 4 | 15 | 7.60 |
原来他是这样害我带来的朋友的啊。 | Control | V + N | 4 | 15 | 8.00 |
他跟我一起解决困难这让我很感动。 | Collocation | V + N | 0 | 15 | 8.20 |
他跟我一起经历困难这让我很感动。 | Control | V + N | 0 | 15 | 8.75 |
他跟我一起解决这些困难这让我很感动。 | Collocation | V + N | 2 | 17 | 8.20 |
他跟我一起经历这些困难这让我很感动。 | Control | V + N | 2 | 17 | 8.35 |
他跟我一起解决了这么多困难这让我很感动。 | Collocation | V + N | 4 | 19 | 8.60 |
他跟我一起经历了这么多困难这让我很感动。 | Control | V + N | 4 | 19 | 9.00 |
我们还是先去洗碗吧。 | Collocation | V + N | 0 | 9 | 8.75 |
我们还是先去换碗吧。 | Control | V + N | 0 | 9 | 7.13 |
我们还是先去洗几个碗吧。 | Collocation | V + N | 2 | 11 | 9.25 |
我们还是先去换几个碗吧。 | Control | V + N | 2 | 11 | 8.13 |
我们还是先去洗个白色的碗吧。 | Collocation | V + N | 4 | 13 | 9.20 |
我们还是先去换个白色的碗吧。 | Control | V + N | 4 | 13 | 9.80 |
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Jiang, S. Does the Processing Advantage of Formulaic Language Persist in Its Nonadjacent Forms? Evidence from Eye Movements of Chinese Collocations. J Psycholinguist Res 53, 28 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-024-10040-5
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-024-10040-5