Abstract
Earthquake-triggered mudflows are typical in scale and hazard, and their formation mechanism is extremely complex. In this study, the liquefaction and mobility mechanisms of a catastrophic mudflow, namely, the Yongguangcun (YGC) mudflow, in Minxian, Gansu Province, China, under the coupled action of historical earthquakes, active faults, groundwater, long-term rainfall before an earthquake, and the 2013 Mw6.6 Minxian–Zhangxian earthquake were systematically analyzed. Through a detailed field investigation and laboratory testing, the stratigraphic structure of the YGC mudflow was revealed, a geomechanical model was established, and the complex chain process leading to the formation of the YGC mudflow was elucidated. This process includes sliding along the contact zone between the loess and strongly weathered mudstone, liquefaction of the saturated loess under the groundwater table, and liquefaction and collapse of the unsaturated loess above the groundwater table. The slightly low terrain provides the topographic conditions required for groundwater convergence, and sets the conditions for the deformation and further liquefaction of saturated loess during earthquakes. The undulating terrain in the meizoseismal area enhances the complexity of the earthquake waves. In summary, the YGC mudflow was caused by long-term geological evolution and the synergistic effects of other factors; and the site conditions, such as the local topography and groundwater, are the fundamental reasons for the failure and mobility differences between the YGC mudflow and the eastern landslide. The results of the investigation of this mudflow would enrich our understanding of mudflows, promote research on the formation mechanism of geological disasters under complex conditions on the Loess Plateau, and provide important information for improving the scientific prevention and control of landslides of the same type.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
References
Amini F, Qi GZ (2000) Liquefaction testing of stratified silty sands. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 126:208–217
Anderson JG, Bodin P, Brune JN (1986) Strong ground motion from the Michoacam, Mexico. Earthq Sci 233(4768):1043–1049
Assadi-Langroudi A, Ng’Ambi S, Smalley I (2017) Loess as a collapsible soil: some basic particle packing aspects. Quatern Int 469:20–29
Azañón JM, Castro J, Ureña C, Rodriguez-Peces MJ (2012) The role of water in the formation of clay-rich layers at the slip surface of slope instabilities (Diezma landslide, SE Spain). Geophys Res Abstr 14:11737
Bai M, Zhang S (1990) Liquefaction movement of loess stratum during high intensity earthquake. Geotech Investig Surv 6:1–5
Bray JD, Sancio RB (2006) Assessment of the liquefaction susceptibility of fine-grained soils. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 132:1165–1177
Buscarnera G, Prisco CD (2013) Soil stability and flow slides in unsaturated shallow slopes: can saturation events trigger liquefaction processes. Geotechnique 63:801–817
Campillo M, Sanchez-Sesma FJ, Aki K (1990) Influence of small lateral variation of a soft surficial layer on seismic ground motion. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 9(6):284–287
Chai S, Wang L, Wang P, Pu X, Xu S, Guo H, Wang H (2022) Failure mechanism and dynamic response characteristics of loess slopes under the effects of earthquake and groundwater. Front Earth Sci 10:1–15
Chang ZL, Huang FM, Huang JS, Jiang SH, Zhou CB, Zhu L (2021) Experimental study of the failure mode and mechanism of loess fill slopes induced by rainfall. Eng Geo 280:105941
Chen YY, Wang YB (2019) Possible site effects revealed by regional earthquake records in the Qaidam Basin, China. Seismol Res Let 90(1):280–293
Chen LX, Mei L, Zeng B, Yin KL, Shrestha DP, Du J (2020) Failure probability assessment of landslides triggered by earthquakes and rainfall: a case study in Yadong County, Tibet, China. Sci Rep 10:16531
China National Standards CNS–GB/T50123–2019 (2019) Standard for Soil Test Method. Standardization Administration of China (SAC), Ministry of Construction, Ministry of Water Resources. China Planning Press, Beijing
Dikau R, Brunsden D, Schrott L, Ibsen ML (1996) Landslide recognition-identification, movement and courses. International Association of Geomorphologists Publication No.5 Report No.1 of the European Commission Environment Programme Contact
Duan Z, Cheng WC, Peng JB, Wang QY, Chen W (2019) Investigation into the triggering mechanism of loess landslides in the south Jingyang platform, Shaanxi province. Bull Eng Geo Environ 78:4919–4930
Eckersley D (1991) Instrumented laboratory flowslides. Geotechnique 40:489–502
Elebi M, Dietel C, Prince J, Onate M, Chavez G (1987) Site amplification in Mexico city (Determined from 19 September 1985 strong-motion records and from recordings of Weak motions). Dev Geotech Eng 44:141–151
Esposito C, Bianchi-Fasani G, Martino S, Scarascia-Mugnozza G (2013) Quaternary gravitational morpho-genesis of Central Apennines (Italy): Insights from the Mt. Genzana case history. Tectonophysics 605:96–103
Fan W, Lyu J, Cao Y, Shen M, Wei Y (2018) Characteristics and block kinematics of a fault-related landslide in the Qinba Mountains, western China. Eng Geol 249:162–171
Fiegel GL, Kutter BL (1994) Liquefaction mechanism for layered soils. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 120:737–735
Gnyawali KR, Zhang YH, Wang GJ, Miao LJ, Pradhan AMS, Adhikari BR, Xiao LM (2020) Mapping the susceptibility of rainfall and earthquake triggered landslides along China-Nepal highways. Bull Eng Geol Environ 79:587–601
He WG, Zheng WJ, Wang AG, Liu XW, Zhang B, Liu FB, Pang W (2013) New activities of Lintan-Dangchang fault and its relations to Minxian-Zhangxian Ms 6.6 Earthquake, China. Earthq Eng J 35:751–761
Hong Y, Ling X, He K (2021) Effects of sliding liquefaction on homogeneous loess landslides in western China. Sci Rep 11:11941–11955
Hu YX (2006) Earthquake engineering, 2nd edn. Beijing Publishing house
Huang Q, Jia X, Peng J, Liu Y, Wang T (2019) Seismic response of loess-mudstone slope with bedding fault zone. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 123:371–380
Hungr O, Evans SG, Bovis MJ, Hutchinson JN (2001) A review of the classification of landslides of the flow type. Environ Eng Geosci 7:221–238
Hwang H, Wang L, Yuan Z (2000) Comparison of liquefaction potential of loess in Lanzhou, China, and Memphis, USA. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 20:389–395
Ibrahim KMHI (2014) Liquefaction analysis of alluvial soil deposits in Bedsa south west of Cairo. Ain Shams Eng J 5:647–655
Ishihara K (1977) Simple method of analysis for liquefaction of sand deposits during earthquakes. Soils Found 17:1–17
Ishihara K (1994) Liquefaction and flow failure during earthquakes. Geotechnique 31:351–415
Ishihara K, Okusa S, Oyagi N, Ischuk A (1990) Liquefaction-induced flow slide in the collapsible loess deposit in Soviet Tajik. J Jpn Soc Soil Mech Found Eng 30:73–89
Iverson RM (1997) The physics of debris flows. Rev Geophys 35:245–296
Jibson RW, Harp EL, Michael JA (2000) A method for producing digital probabilistic seismic landslide hazard maps. Eng Geol 58:271–289
Kokusho T (1999) Water film in liquefied sand and its effect on lateral spread. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 125:817–826
Kokusho T (2000) Mechanism for water film generation and lateral flow in liquefied sand layer. Soils Found 40:99–111
Kokusho T, Kojima T (2002) Mechanism for postliquefaction water film generation in layered sand. J Geotech Geoenviron 128:129–137
Kusumawardani R, Chang M, Upomo TC, Huang RC, Fansuri MH, Prayitno GA (2021) Understanding of Petobo liquefaction flowslide by 2018.09.28 Palu-Donggala Indonesia earthquake based on site reconnaissance. Landslide 18:3163–3182
Lee SJ, Chen HW, Huang BS (2008) Simulations of strong ground motion and 3D amplification effects in the Taipei basin by using a composite grid finite-difference method. B Seismol Soc Am 98:1229–1242
Li SH, Wang YB, Liang ZB, He SL, Zeng WH (2012) Crustal structure in southeastern Gansu from regional seismic waveform inversion. Chin J Geophys 55:1186–1197 (in Chinese)
Li T, Zhao J, Li P, Wang F (2013) Failure and motion mechanisms of a rapid loess flowslide triggered by irrigation in the Guanzhong Irrigation Area, Shaanxi, China. In: Wang F et al (eds) Progress of geo-disaster mitigation technology in Asia, environmental science and engineering. Springer, Berlin, pp 421–433
Li F, Zhang S, Jin Z, Zhang MS, Sun P, Jia J, Chu G, Hu W (2021) The critical mechanics of the initiation of loess flow failure and implications for landslides. Eng Geo 288:1–16
Liang C, Cao C, Wu S (2018) Hydraulic-mechanical properties of loess and its behavior when subjected to infiltration-induced wetting. B Eng Geol Environ 77:385–397
Liang CY, Zhang H, Wang T (2022) Red clay/mudstone distribution properties and loess–mudstone landslides in the Loess Plateau China. Environ. earth sci. 81(15):386
Liu K (2020) Earthquake-induced failure mechanism and stability evaluation of loess slope under rainfall effects [D]. Lanzhou university (in Chinese)
Liu X, Chen W, Han W (2008) Grain size distribution of loess and its implication for engineering geology. Chin J Geol 43:792–797 (in Chinese)
Lu XB, Cui P (2010) A study on water film in saturated sand. Int J Sediment Res 25:221–232
Lu X, Zheng Z, Wu Y (2006) Formation mechanism of cracks in saturated sand. Acta Mech Sin 22:377–383
Lu X, Cui P, Hu K, Zhang X (2010) Initiation and development of water film by seepage. J Mt Sci 7:361–366
Lu Y, Wang W, Shi Y, Liu H (2014) Geographic analysis of disasters of Minxian, Gansu. J Gansu Sci 26:70–76 (in Chinese)
Ma HP, Feng JG, Wu SY, Xu R, Huang YL, Li N, Wang Q (2018) The analysis of the abnormal characteristics of GPS data before the 2013 Minxian-Zhangxian M_S6.6 earthquake. Earth Environ Sci 153:1–7
Malvick EJ, Kutter BL, Boulanger RW, Kulasingam R (2006) Shear localization due to liquefaction-induced void redistribution in a layered infinite slope. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 132:1293–1303
Massey CI, Petley DN, Mcsaveney MJ (2013) Patterns of movement in reactivated landslides. Eng Geo 159:1–19
Newmark NM (1965) Effects of earthquakes on dams and embankments. Geotechnique 15(2):139–160
Oil and Gas Industry Standard of the People’s Republic of China ICS- SY/T 5163–2010 (2010) Analysis method for clay minerals and ordinary non-clay minerals in sedimentary rocks by the X-ray diffraction. National Energy Administration, Beijing
Panda SD, Kumar S, Pradhan SP, Singh J, Kralia A, Thakur M (2023) Effect of groundwater table fluctuation on slope instability: a comprehensive 3D simulation approach for Kotropi landslide, India. Landslides 20:663–682
Paronuzzi P, Bolla A, Pinto D, Lenaz D, Soccal M (2021) The clays involved in the 1963 Vajont landslide: Genesis and geomechanical implications. Eng Geo 294:1–18
Pei X, Zhang X, Guo B, Wang G, Zhang F (2017) Experimental case study of seismically induced loess liquefaction and landslide. Eng Geo 223:23–30
Peng J, Fan Z, Wu D, Zhuang J, Dai F, Chen W, Zhao C (2015a) Heavy rainfall triggered loess-mudstone landslide and subsequent debris flow in Tianshui, China. Eng Geol 186:79–90
Peng D, Xu Q, Liu F, He Y, Zhang X (2017) Distribution and failure modes of the landslides in Heitai terrace, China. Eng Geol 236:91–110
Peng J, Zhuang J, Wang G, Dai F, Zhang F (2018) Liquefaction of loess landslides as a consequence of irrigation. Q J Eng Geol Hydroge 51:330–337
Peng D, Xu Q, Zhang X, Xing H, Zhang S, Kang K, Qi X, Ju Y, Zhao K (2019) Hydrological response of loess slopes with reference to widespread landslide events in the Heifangtai terrace, NW China. J Asian Earth Sci 171:259–276
Pu X, Wang L, Wang P, Chai S (2020) Study of shaking table test of seismic subsidence loess landslides induced by the coupling effect of earthquakes and rainfall. Nat Hazards 103:923–945
Sassa K, Wang GH (2005) Mechanism of landslide-triggered debris flows: liquefaction phenomena due to the undrained loading of torrent deposits. Debris-flow hazards and related phenomena. Springer Praxis Books. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp 81–104
Sassa K, Nagai O, Solidun R, Yamazaki Y, Ohta H (2010) An integrated model simulating the initiation and motion of earthquake and rain induced rapid landslides and its application to the 2006 Leyte landslide. Landslide 7:219–236
Seed HB, Idriss IM (1971) A Simplified procedure for evaluating soil liquefaction potential. ASCE J Soil Mech Found Div 97:1249–1273
Seed RB, Cetin KO, Moss RES, Kammerer AM, Wu J, Pestana JM, Riemer MF, Sancio RB, Bray JD, Kayen RE, Faris A (2003) Recent advances in soil liquefaction engineering: a unified and consistent framework. In: Proceedings of the 26th Annual ASCE Los Angeles Geotechnical Spring Seminar: Long Beach, CA
Shao YX, Yuan DY, Wang AG, Liang MJ, Liu K, Feng JG (2011) The segmentation of rupture and estimate of earthquake risk along the north margin of western Qinling fault zone. Seismol Geol 33:79–90 (in Chinese)
Shi JS, Wu LZ, Wu SR, Li B, Wang T, Xin P (2016) Analysis of the causes of large-scale loess landslides in Baoji, China. Geomorphology 264:109–117
Shuzui H (2001) Process of slip-surface development and formation of slip-surface clay in landslides in tertiary volcanic rocks, Japan. Eng Geol 61:199–220
Shuzui H (2011) Process of slip plane development and formation of slip plane clay in tertiary landslides. Landslides 36:13–23
Song D (2006) Supper-fine grain size components in Chinese loess and their palaeo climatic implication. Quat Sci 26:928–936 (in Chinese)
Tommasi P, Verrucci L, Campedel P, Veronese L, Pettinelli E, Ribacchi R (2009) Buckling of high natural slopes: the case of Lavini di Marco (Trento-Italy). Eng Geol 109:93–108
Trandafir AC, Sassa K (2006) Performance-based assessment of earthquake-induced catastrophic landslide hazard in liquefiable soils. Geotech Geol Eng 24:1627–1639
Trandafir AC, Tjok KM, Long XY (2013) Numerical insights into mechanisms of earthquake-induced catastrophic landslides on gentle slopes in liquefiable soils. In: Ugai K, Yagi H, Wakai A (eds) Earthquake-induced landslides. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp 379–385
Tu XB, Kwong AKL, Dai FC, Tham LG, Min H (2009) Field monitoring of rainfall infiltration in a loess slope and analysis of failure mechanism of rainfall-induced landslides. Eng Geol 105:134–150
Varnes DJ (1978) Slope movement and types and processes. In TRB Special Report 176, Landslides: analysis & control. pp 11–33
Tonelli G, Veneri F, Mattioli M, Paletta C (2019) The role of a bentonitic layer on slope stability in bedded limestone: case study of the December 2004 Ca’ Madonna Quarry rock slide (Umbria-Marche Apennines, Central Italy). Ital J Geosci 138:56–65
Wang F, Sassa K (2005) Relationship between grain crushing and excess pore pressure generation by sandy soils in ring-shear tests. J Nat Disaster Sci 22:87–96
Wang L, Wu Z (2013) Earthquake damage characteristics of the Minxian-Zhangxian Ms6.6 earthquake and its lessons. China Earthq Eng J 35:401–412 (in Chinese)
Wang ZY, Fan SH, Ji FY, Zhang SX (1996) The inhomogeneity of crustal velocity in Gansu Region. Northwest Seismol J 18:18–25 (in Chinese)
Wang FW, Sassa K, Wang G (2002) Mechanism of a long-runout landslide triggered by the August 1998 heavy rainfall in Fukushima Prefecture, Japan. Eng Geo 63:169–185
Wang G, Kyoji S, Fukuoka SH (2003) Downslope volume enlargement of a debris slide–debris flow in the 1999 Hiroshima, Japan, rainstorm. Eng Geol 69:309–330
Wang G, Suemine A, Zhang FY, Hara Y, Fukuoka H, Kamai T (2014a) Some fluidized landslides triggered by the 2011Tohoku Earthquake (Mw 9.0), Japan. Geomophology 208:11–22
Wang G, Zhang DX, Furuya G, Yang J (2014b) Pore-pressure generation and fluidization in a loess landslide triggered by the 1920 Haiyuan earthquake, China: a case study. Eng Geol 174:36–45
Wang T, Wu SR, Shi JS, Xin P, Wu LZ (2018) Assessment of the effects of historical strong earthquakes on large-scale landslide groupings in the Wei River midstream. Eng Geol 235:11–19
Wen J, Han JL, Yao LH, Li JJ (2015) Study of hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated loess in-situ conditions. Rock Soil Mech 36:2599–2606 (in Chinese)
Wilson RC, Keefer DK (1983) Dynamic analysis of a slope failure from the 6 August 1979 Coyote Lake, California, earthquake. B Seismol Soc Am 73(3):863–877
Wu Z, Sun J, Chen Y, Wang Q, Zhao W (2015) Analysis of disaster-causing mechanism of loess landslides induced by the Minxian-Zhangxian MS6.6 earthquake, China. Jpn Geotech Soc Spec Publ 1:40–45
Xin P, Li Z, Wu S, Liang C, Lin C (2018) Rotational–translational landslides in the neogene basins at the northeast margin of the Tibetan Plateau. Eng Geol 244:107–115
Xin P, Wang L, Liu Z, Wang T, Wu SR (2021) Structural properties of shear zone materials of the Neogene soft-rock landslides in the northeastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau. B Eng Geol Environ 80:4277–4290
Xu L, Yan D (2019) The groundwater responses to loess flowslides in the Heifangtai platform. B Eng Geol Environ 78:4931–4944
Xu L, Dai FC, Gong QM, Tham LG, Min H (2012) Irrigation-induced loess flow failure in Heifangtai Platform, North-West China. Environ Earth Sci 66:1707–1713
Xu C, Xu X, Shyu J, Zheng W, Wei M (2014a) Landslides triggered by the 22 July 2013 Minxian-Zhangxian, China, Mw 5.9 earthquake: Inventory compiling and spatial distribution analysis. J Asian Earth Sci 92:125–142
Xu L, Dai F, Tu X, Tham LG, Zhou Y, Iqbal J (2014b) Landslides in a loess platform, North-West China. Landslides 11:993–1005
Xu L, Coop MR, Zhang M, Wang G (2017) The mechanics of a saturated silty loess and implications for landslides. Eng Geol 236:29–42
Yan RX, Peng JB, Zhang JY, Wang SK (2020) Static liquefaction capacity of saturated undisturbed loess in South Jingyang platform. Water 12:2298
Yang GL, Shen CY, Wu GJ, Tan HB (2015) Bouguer gravity anomaly and crustal density structure in Jinchuan-Lushan-Qianwei profile. Chin J Geopphys 58:2424–2435 (in Chinese)
Yin Z, Xu Y, Chen H, Zhang Y, Zhao Wu (2015) Study on the distribution characteristics of geohazards and the causative tectonic of the Minxian-Zhangxian Ms 6.6 earthquake on 22 July, 2013, Gansu, China. Quat Sci 35:88–99 (In Chinese)
Yuan ZX, Wang LM (2009) Collapsibility and seismic settlement of loess. Eng Geol 105:119–123
Zhang W (2006) Finite difference algorithm of seismic wave propagation in three-dimensional inhomogeneous medium with undulating terrain and its application to strong ground motion simulation [D]. Peking University, Beijing (in Chinese)
Zhang D, Wang G (2007) Study of the 1920 Haiyuan earthquake-induced landslides in loess (China). Eng Geol 94:76–88
Zhang F, Wang G (2018) Effect of irrigation-induced densification on the post-failure behavior of loess flowslides occurring on the Heifangtai area, Gansu, China. Eng Geol 236:111–118
Zhang D, Wang G, Luo C, Chen J, Zhou Y (2009) A rapid loess flowslide triggered by irrigation in China. Landslides 6:55–60
Zhang Y, Xu LS, Chen YT (2013) Source rupture process of the 2013 Minxian M6 earthquake in Dingxi City, Gansu Province. https://www.cea.gov.cn/cea/dzpd/dzzt/3571682/3571921/3575253/index.html
Zhang S, Pei XJ, Wang SY, Huang RQ, Zhang XC, Chang ZL (2019) Centrifuge model testing of a loess landslide induced by rising groundwater in Northwest China. Eng Geo 259:105170
Zhang F, Peng J, Wu X, Pan F, Ma W (2021) A catastrophic flowslide overridden on a liquefied substrate: The 1983 Saleshan landslide, China. Earth Surf Process Landf 46:2060–2078
Zhang F, Wang G, Jp C (2022) Initiation and mobility of recurring loess flowslides on the Heifangtai irrigated terrace in China: insights from hydrogeological conditions and liquefaction criteria. Eng Geol 302:106619
Zheng W, Lei Z, Yuan D, He W, Ge W, Liu X (2007) Structural research on the 1837 northern Minxian M6 earthquake in Gansu Province and its causative structure. Earthquake 27:120–130 (in Chinese)
Zheng W, Wei M, He W, Ren Z, Liu X, Wang A, Xu C, Li F (2013) Distribution of the related disaster and the causative tectonic of the Minxian-Zhangxian Ms6.6 Earthquake on July 22, 2013, Gansu, China. Seismol Geol 35:604–615 (in Chinese)
Zhuang Y, Xing A, Cheng Q, Li D, Zhao C, Xu C (2020) Characteristics and numerical modeling of a catastrophic loess flow slide triggered by the 2013 Minxian-Zhangxian earthquake in Yongguang. Bull Eng Geol Environ 79:429–449
Acknowledgements
This study was financially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 41972301) and the China Geological Survey Project (Grant No. DD20221738).
Funding
National Natural Science Foundation of China, 41972301, China Geological Survey Project, DD20221738.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Changyu Ling finished all the experiments and wrote the main manuscript text. Jianlei Zhao helped finishing the field investigation and sample collecting. Tao Wang gave valuable advice and provided data related to co-seismic landslides.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Liang, C., Zhao, J. & Wang, T. Formation and evolution mechanism of a catastrophic mudflow in a complex disaster-prone environment in a strong earthquake-disturbance region. Environ Earth Sci 83, 199 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-024-11469-6
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-024-11469-6