Abstract
Intelligent technologies have great potential for advancing physical education (PE), thus finding an appropriate independent PE plan (IPEP) is a key step in improving undergraduates’ physical fitness (PF) level. In this study, an adaptive fitness enhancement model (AFEM) was designed based on senseless exercise behaviors monitoring (EBM) technology and an intelligent PE platform to explore the changes in PF levels of undergraduates with different fitness levels after receiving different IPEP. A total of 400 undergraduates participated in this study, and they were randomly assigned to four experimental groups and one control group. This study not only considered the historical performance of the undergraduates (fixed effect) but also delved into the individual differences of the undergraduates (random effect). The findings indicated that high-frequency aerobic exercise promoted endurance qualities more than low-frequency anaerobic exercise in an EBM environment, while low-frequency anaerobic exercise promoted strength qualities more than low-frequency anaerobic exercise. In this study, the initial decision-making mechanism of the AFEM model was developed based on the results of linear mixed model data analysis. The results showed that the AFEM model was able to maximize the effect of exercise, which in turn effectively improved the PF of undergraduates. At the same time, the AFEM model also adjusts the control variables according to the actual needs of the users, thus enriching the diversity of IPEP and further exploring the potential of the application of intelligent technology in personalized PE.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
References
Alcaraz-Muñoz, V., Roque, J. I. A., & Lucas, J. L. Y. (2023). How do girls and boys feel emotions? Gender Differences in Physical Education in Primary School. Physical Culture and Sport Studies and Research, 100(1), 25–33. https://doi.org/10.2478/pcssr-2023-0016.
Ansdell, P., Thomas, K., Hicks, K. M., Hunter, S. K., Howatson, G., & Goodall, S. (2020). Physiological sex differences affect the integrative response to exercise: Acute and chronic implications. Experimental Physiology, 105(12), 2007–2021. https://doi.org/10.1113/EP088548.
Archambault, L., Kennedy, K., & Bender, S. (2013). Cyber-truancy. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 46(1), 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2013.10782611.
Azzarito, L., Macdonald, D., Dagkas, S., & Fisette, J. (2017). Revitalizing the Physical Education Social-Justice Agenda in the Global Era: Where Do We Go From Here? Quest, 69(2), 205–219. https://doi.org/10.1080/00336297.2016.1176935.
Bailey, D. P., & Locke, C. D. (2015). Breaking up prolonged sitting with light-intensity walking improves postprandial glycemia, but breaking up sitting with standing does not. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 18(3), 294–298. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2014.03.008.
Battista, R. A., Bouldin, E. D., Pfeiffer, K. A., Pacewicz, C. E., Siegel, S. R., Martin, E. M., True, L., Branta, C. F., Haubenstricker, J., & Seefeldt, V. (2021). Childhood Physical Fitness and Performance as predictors of High School Sport participation. Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science, 25(1), 43–52. https://doi.org/10.1080/1091367X.2020.1865964.
Berkner, J., Meehan, W. P., Master, I. I. I., C. L., & Howell, D. R. (2017). Gait and quiet-stance performance among adolescents after concussion-symptom resolution. Journal of Athletic Training, 52(12), 1089–1095. https://doi.org/10.4085/1062-6050-52.11.23.
Billat, V. L., Sirvent, P., Py, G., Koralsztein, J. P., & Mercier, J. (2003). The Concept of maximal lactate steady state. Sports Medicine, 33(6), 407–426. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200333060-00003.
Bouchard, C., & Rankinen, T. (2001). Individual differences in response to regular physical activity. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 33(Supplement), 446–S451. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005768-200106001-00013.
Bouchard, C., Blair, S. N., & Katzmarzyk, P. T. (2015). Less sitting, more physical activity, or higher fitness? Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 90(11), 1533–1540. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mayocp.2015.08.005.
Cadenas-Sanchez, C., Mena-Molina, A., Torres-Lopez, L. V., Migueles, J. H., Rodriguez-Ayllon, M., Lubans, D. R., & Ortega, F. B. (2021). Healthier minds in fitter bodies: A systematic review and Meta-analysis of the Association between Physical Fitness and Mental Health in Youth. Sports Medicine, 51(12), 2571–2605. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-021-01520-y.
Cale, L. (2000). Physical Activity Promotion in secondary schools. European Physical Education Review, 6(1), 71–90. https://doi.org/10.1177/1356336X000061006.
Capio, C. M., Ho, H. C. M., Chan, C. C. Y., & Ho, D. C. W. (2023). Understanding and awareness of physical literacy by early childhood educators in Hong Kong – a mixed-methods study. Early Childhood Education Journal, 51(8), 1511–1524. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-022-01409-z.
Cheatham, S., Stull, K., Fantigrassi, M., & Montel, I. (2017). The efficacy of wearable activity tracking technology as part of a weight loss program: A systematic review. The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 58. https://doi.org/10.23736/S0022-4707.17.07437-0.
Chen, W., Hammond-Bennett, A., Hypnar, A., & Mason, S. (2018). Health-related physical fitness and physical activity in elementary school students. Bmc Public Health, 18(1), 195. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-5107-4.
Chen, X., Cui, J., Zhang, Y., & Peng, W. (2020). The association between BMI and health-related physical fitness among Chinese college students: A cross-sectional study. Bmc Public Health, 20(1), 444. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-08517-8.
Colquitt, G., Pritchard, T., Johnson, C., & McCollum, S. (2017). Differentiating instruction in Physical Education: Personalization of learning. Journal of Physical Education Recreation & Dance, 88(7), 44–50. https://doi.org/10.1080/07303084.2017.1340205.
de la Iglesia, D. G., Calderón, J. F., Weyns, D., Milrad, M., & Nussbaum, M. (2015). A self-adaptive Multi-agent System Approach for Collaborative Mobile Learning. IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies, 8(2), 158–172. https://doi.org/10.1109/TLT.2014.2367493.
de Leeuw, M. J., Oppewal, A., Elbers, R. G., Hilgenkamp, T. I. M., Bindels, P. J. E., & Maes-Festen, D. (2023). Associations between physical fitness and cardiovascular disease in older adults with intellectual disabilities: Results of the healthy ageing and intellectual disability study. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 67(6), 547–559. https://doi.org/10.1111/jir.13027.
Flintoff, A., & Scraton, S. (2001). Stepping into active leisure? Young Women’s perceptions of active lifestyles and their experiences of School Physical Education. Sport Education and Society, 6(1), 5–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/713696043.
García-Hermoso, A., Alonso-Martínez, A. M., Ramírez-Vélez, R., Pérez-Sousa, M. Á., Ramírez-Campillo, R., & Izquierdo, M. (2020). Association of Physical Education with Improvement of Health-Related Physical Fitness Outcomes and Fundamental Motor skills among youths: A systematic review and Meta-analysis. JAMA Pediatrics, 174(6), e200223. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2020.0223.
Gibala, M. J., & McGee, S. L. (2008). Metabolic adaptations to short-term high-intensity interval training: A Little Pain for a lot of Gain? Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews, 36(2), 58. https://doi.org/10.1097/JES.0b013e318168ec1f.
Grasdalsmoen, M., Eriksen, H. R., Lønning, K. J., & Sivertsen, B. (2020). Physical exercise, mental health problems, and suicide attempts in university students. Bmc Psychiatry, 20(1), 175. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-02583-3.
Haase, A., Steptoe, A., Sallis, J. F., & Wardle, J. (2004). Leisure-time physical activity in university students from 23 countries: Associations with health beliefs, risk awareness, and national economic development. Preventive Medicine, 39(1), 182–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2004.01.028.
Hanssen-Doose, A., Niessner, C., Oriwol, D., Bös, K., Woll, A., & Worth, A. (2021). Population-based trends in physical fitness of children and adolescents in Germany, 2003–2017. European Journal of Sport Science, 21(8), 1204–1214. https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2020.1793003.
Hardy, S., Dutz, T., Wiemeyer, J., Göbel, S., & Steinmetz, R. (2015). Framework for personalized and adaptive game-based training programs in health sport. Multimedia Tools and Applications, 74(14), 5289–5311. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11042-014-2009-z.
Harms, C. A., Wetter, T. J., St. Croix, C. M., Pegelow, D. F., & Dempsey, J. A. (2000). Effects of respiratory muscle work on exercise performance. Journal of Applied Physiology, 89(1), 131–138. https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.2000.89.1.131.
Hegedus, E. J., Hegedus, S. R., Wright, A., Dickson, T., & Stern, B. D. (2022). Individualized Exercise prescription for athletes using a construct-based model. Sports Medicine, 52(10), 2315–2320. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-022-01670-7.
Hills, L. A., & Croston, A. (2012). It should be better all together’: Exploring strategies for ‘undoing’ gender in coeducational physical education. Sport Education and Society, 17(5), 591–605. https://doi.org/10.1080/13573322.2011.553215.
Hu, X., & Zhang, Y. (2023). Application of intelligent football training system based on IoT optical imaging and sensor data monitoring. Optical and Quantum Electronics, 56(2), 150. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11082-023-05769-7.
Huber, Y., Pfirrmann, D., Gebhardt, I., Labenz, C., Gehrke, N., Straub, B. K., Ruckes, C., Bantel, H., Belda, E., Clément, K., Leeming, D. J., Karsdal, M. A., Galle, P. R., Simon, P., & Schattenberg, J. M. (2019). Improvement of non-invasive markers of NAFLD from an individualised, web-based exercise program. Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 50(8), 930–939. https://doi.org/10.1111/apt.15427.
Jansson, A., Sundblad, G. B., Lundvall, S., Bjärsholm, D., & Norberg, J. R. (2022). Gender differences and inequality? A 20-Year retrospective analysis based on 39,980 students’ perceptions of Physical Education in Sweden. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 42(2), 371–382. https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.2021-0270.
Keller, S., Koob, A., Corak, D., von Schöning, V., & Born, D. P. (2020). How to improve change-of-direction speed in Junior Team Sport Athletes—Horizontal, Vertical, maximal, or explosive strength training? The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 34(2), 473. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000002814.
Learmonth, Y. C., & Heritage, B. (2021). Motivations toward Exercise participation: Active persons with multiple sclerosis have Greater Self-directed and self-capable motivations. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 102(6), 1232–1235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2020.10.138.
Lee, J. E., & Gao, Z. (2020). Effects of the iPad and mobile application-integrated physical education on children’s physical activity and psychosocial beliefs. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 25(6), 567–584. https://doi.org/10.1080/17408989.2020.1761953.
Lehtonen, E., Gagnon, D., Eklund, D., Kaseva, K., & Peltonen, J. E. (2022). Hierarchical framework to improve individualised exercise prescription in adults: A critical review. BMJ Open Sport — Exercise Medicine, 8(2), e001339. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjsem-2022-001339.
Lei, T., Cai, Z., & Hua, L. (2021). RETRACTED: 5G-oriented IoT coverage enhancement and physical education resource management. Microprocessors and Microsystems, 80, 103346. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micpro.2020.103346.
Lima, B. N., Junior, A., de Almeida, R. S., Camargo, K., de Passos, L. B., Fileni, R. P., Souza, C. H. P., D. M., & de Vilela Junior, G. (2021). B. Physical Fitness Test (PFT) in Police and Military in Brazil: A Systematic Review. International Journal of Cardiovascular Sciences, 35, 191–201. https://doi.org/10.36660/ijcs.20200299.
Malisoux, L., Frisch, A., Urhausen, A., Seil, R., & Theisen, D. (2013). Monitoring of sport participation and injury risk in young athletes. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 16(6), 504–508. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2013.01.008.
Markovic, G., Dizdar, D., Jukic, I., & Cardinale, M. (2004). Reliability and Factorial Validity of Squat and Countermovement Jump tests. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 18(3), 551. https://journals.lww.com/nsca-jscr/Fulltext/2004/08000/Reliability_and_Factorial_Validity_of_Squat_and.28.aspx.
Mehta, S., Tang, S., Rajapakse, C., Juzwak, S., & Dowling, B. (2022). Chronic workload, subjective Arm Health, and throwing Injury in High School Baseball players: 3-Year retrospective pilot study. Sports Health, 14(1), 119–126. https://doi.org/10.1177/19417381211055142.
Meier, S., Raab, A., Höger, B., & Diketmüller, R. (2022). Same, same, but different?!’ Investigating diversity issues in the current Austrian National Curriculum for Physical Education. European Physical Education Review, 28(1), 169–185. https://doi.org/10.1177/1356336X211027072.
Nation-Grainger, S. (2017). It’s just PE’ till ‘It felt like a computer game’: Using technology to improve motivation in physical education. Research Papers in Education, 32(4), 463–480. https://doi.org/10.1080/02671522.2017.1319590.
Nelson, T. F., Gortmaker, S. L., Subramanian, S. V., & Wechsler, H. (2007). Vigorous physical activity among College students in the United States. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 4(4), 496–509. https://doi.org/10.1123/jpah.4.4.496.
Oh, Y., Braun, S., Stringer, J., Kapusta, Z., & Stockhaus, D. (2022). A qualitative study of secondary physical education teachers’ job satisfaction in Japan, South Korea, and the United States. Journal of Health Sports and Kinesiology, 3, 32–43. https://doi.org/10.47544/johsk.2022.3.2.32.
Oppewal, A., Maes-Festen, D., & Hilgenkamp, T. I. M. (2020). Small steps in Fitness, Major leaps in health for adults with Intellectual Disabilities. Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews, 48(2), 92. https://doi.org/10.1249/JES.0000000000000216.
Ortega, F. B., Ruiz, J. R., Castillo, M. J., & Sjöström, M. (2008). Physical fitness in childhood and adolescence: A powerful marker of health. International Journal of Obesity, 32(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ijo.0803774.
Peake, J. M., Neubauer, O., Walsh, N. P., & Simpson, R. J. (2017). Recovery of the immune system after exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology, 122(5), 1077–1087. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00622.2016.
Pereira, T. B. L., van Munster, M. A., & Grenier, M. (2022). Individualized education plan applied to physical education as a support for inclusion in Brazilian schools. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 0(0), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2022.2123963.
Qi, J., & Ha, A. S. (2012). Inclusion in Physical Education: A review of literature. International Journal of Disability Development and Education, 59(3), 257–281. https://doi.org/10.1080/1034912X.2012.697737.
Raghuveer, G., Hartz, J., Lubans, D. R., Takken, T., Wiltz, J. L., Mietus-Snyder, M., Perak, A. M., Baker-Smith, C., Pietris, N., & Edwards, N. M. (2020). & null, null. Cardiorespiratory Fitness in Youth: An Important Marker of Health: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association. Circulation, 142(7), e101–e118. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000000866.
Rana, M., & Mittal, V. (2021). Wearable Sensors for Real-Time Kinematics Analysis in sports: A review. IEEE Sensors Journal, 21(2), 1187–1207. https://doi.org/10.1109/JSEN.2020.3019016.
Rosselli, M., Ermini, E., Tosi, B., Boddi, M., Stefani, L., Toncelli, L., & Modesti, P. A. (2020). Gender differences in barriers to physical activity among adolescents. Nutrition Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases, 30(9), 1582–1589. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.numecd.2020.05.005.
Saatmann, N., Zaharia, O. P., Strassburger, K., Pesta, D. H., Burkart, V., Szendroedi, J., Gerdes, N., Kelm, M., & Roden, M. (2022). Physical Fitness and Cardiovascular Risk factors in Novel Diabetes subgroups. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 107(4), 1127–1139. https://doi.org/10.1210/clinem/dgab810.
Santana, C. C. A., Azevedo, L. B., Cattuzzo, M. T., Hill, J. O., Andrade, L. P., & Prado, W. L. (2017). Physical fitness and academic performance in youth: A systematic review. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 27(6), 579–603. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.12773.
Shah, N., Shrivastava, M., Kumar, S., & Nagi, R. S. (2022). Supervised, individualised exercise reduces fatigue and improves strength and quality of life more than unsupervised home exercise in people with chronic Guillain-Barré syndrome: A randomised trial. Journal of Physiotherapy, 68(2), 123–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jphys.2022.03.007.
Shi, B. (2021). Wearable exercise monitoring equipment for physical exercise teaching process based on wireless sensor. Microprocessors and Microsystems, 81, 103791. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micpro.2020.103791.
Spasojević, S., Ilić, T. V., Milanović, S., Potkonjak, V., Rodić, A., & Santos-Victor, J. (2017). Combined Vision and Wearable Sensors-based System for Movement Analysis in Rehabilitation. Methods of Information in Medicine, 56(2), 95–111. https://doi.org/10.3414/ME16-02-0013.
Subramaniam, P. R., & Silverman, S. (2007). Middle school students’ attitudes toward physical education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 23(5), 602–611. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2007.02.003.
Swain, D., & Franklin, B. (2002). VO2 Reserve and the minimal intensity for improving Cardiorespiratory Fitness. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 34(1). https://doi.org/10.1097/00005768-200201000-00023.
Tan, T. C. (2015). The Transformation of China’s National Fitness Policy: From a Major sports Country to a World sports Power. The International Journal of the History of Sport, 32(8), 1071–1084. https://doi.org/10.1080/09523367.2015.1036240.
Tetzlaff, L., Schmiedek, F., & Brod, G. (2021). Developing Personalized Education: A dynamic Framework. Educational Psychology Review, 33(3), 863–882. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-020-09570-w.
Tse, A. C., Liu, V. H., Lee, P. H., Anderson, D. I., & Lakes, K. D. (2023). The relationships among executive functions, self-regulation, and physical exercise in children with autism spectrum disorder. Autism, 13623613231168944, https://doi.org/10.1177/13623613231168944.
van der Kruk, E., & Reijne, M. M. (2018). Accuracy of human motion capture systems for sport applications; state-of-the-art review. European Journal of Sport Science, 18(6), 806–819. https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2018.1463397.
Wang, R., & Jia, J. (2020). Design of intelligent martial arts sports system based on biosensor network technology. Measurement, 165, 108045. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2020.108045.
Whitley, M. A., Smith, A. L., Dorsch, T. E., Bowers, M. T., & Centeio, E. E. (2021). Reimagining the Youth Sport System across the United States: A commentary from the 2020–2021 President’s Council on sports, Fitness & Nutrition Science Board. Journal of Physical Education Recreation & Dance, 92(8), 6–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/07303084.2021.1963181.
Xiao, N., Yu, W., & Han, X. (2020). Wearable heart rate monitoring intelligent sports bracelet based on internet of things. Measurement, 164, 108102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2020.108102.
Zacher, J., Wesemann, F., Joisten, N., Walzik, D., Bloch, W., & Predel, G. (2023). Cellular Integrative Immune markers in Elite athletes. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 44(4), 298–308. https://doi.org/10.1055/a-1976-6069.
Zachwieja, E., Theosmy, E. G., Yacovelli, S. J., Beatty, E. W., McGrath, M. E., & Lonner, J. H. (2020). Web-based Self-Directed Exercise Program is cost-effective compared to formal physical therapy after primary total knee arthroplasty. The Journal of Arthroplasty, 35(9), 2335–2341. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arth.2020.04.061.
Funding
This work was supported by the Humanities and Social Sciences of Chongqing Education Commission [grant numbers 22SKJD074]; the Chongqing Education and Science Planning Office [grant number 2021-GX-328].
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Institutional review board statement
The study was approved by the Ethical Review Committee of Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications under reference number 202211100102696, dated 10 November 2022.
Competing interest
Not applicable.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Li, X., Tan, W.H., Li, Z. et al. Adaptive fitness enhancement model: Improving exercise feedback and outcomes through tailored independent physical education plan. Educ Inf Technol (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-024-12616-z
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-024-12616-z