Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-5nwft Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-05-07T14:20:52.053Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Intersectional Motherhood and Candidate Evaluations in the United States

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 March 2024

Jennie Sweet-Cushman Open the ORCID record for Jennie Sweet-Cushman [Opens in a new window]  and
Nichole M. Bauer Open the ORCID record for Nichole M. Bauer [Opens in a new window]
Jennie Sweet-Cushman*
Affiliation:
Department of Social Science, Chatham University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Nichole M. Bauer
Affiliation:
Department of Political Science & Manship School of Mass Communication, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
*
Corresponding author: Jennie Sweet-Cushman; Email: jsweetcushman@chatham.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

In the United States, emphasizing their families and talking about parenthood can be a potent strategy for political candidates as voters use information about a candidate’s family life to make assessments of the candidate’s personal attributes and issue competencies. We nonetheless know little about how a candidate’s race affects these assessments. We thus consider how Black women use and benefit from politicizing motherhood, and we argue that the unique intersectional identities of Black women shaped jointly by their race and gender can give Black women a stronger strategic advantage from highlighting motherhood compared to white women. Using both observational and experimental data, we apply this intersectional framework by examining motherhood messages. We identify the extent to which Black women rely on messages about motherhood and how voters respond. Our results show that Black women are just as likely to use motherhood messages relative to white women, and that Black women receive positive evaluations from voters from a message emphasizing motherhood. White and minority voters are equally likely to positively rate Black women who emphasize motherhood.

Keywords

intersectional motherhoodvoter evaluationsmaternal appealspolitical candidatesparenthoodcandidate evaluations
Type
Research Article
Information
Politics & Gender , First View , pp. 1 - 22
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2024. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Women, Gender, and Politics Research Section of the American Political Science Association

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abney, F. Glenn, and Hutcheson, John D. Jr. 1981. “Race, Representation, and Trust: Changes in Attitudes after the Election of a Black Mayor.” Public Opinion Quarterly 45 (1): 91–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bailey, Moya, and Trudy, . 2018. “On Misogynoir: Citation, Erasure, and Plagiarism.” Feminist Media Studies 18 (4): 762–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Banda, Kevin K., and Windett, Jason H.. 2021. “Candidate Appearance in Campaign Advertisements.” Electoral Studies 70. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2020.102275.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barreto, Matt A. 2010. Ethnic Cues: The Role of Shared Ethnicity in Latino Political Participation. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bauer, Nichole M. 2015. “Emotional, Sensitive, and Unfit for Office: Gender Stereotype Activation and Support for Female Candidates.” Political Psychology 36 (6): 691–708. doi: 10.1111/pops.12186.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bauer, Nichole M., and Carpinella, Colleen. 2018. “Visual Communication and Candidate Evaluation: The Influence of Feminine and Masculine Images on Support for Female Candidates.” Political Research Quarterly 71 (2): 395–407. doi: 10.1177/1065912917738579.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bejarano, Christina. 2013. The Latina Advantage: Gender, Race, and Political Success. Austin: University of Texas Press.Google Scholar
Bell, Melissa A., and Kaufmann, Karen M.. 2015. “The Electoral Consequences of Marriage and Motherhood: How Gender Traits Influence Voter Evaluations of Female Candidates.” Journal of Women, Politics & Policy 36: 1–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brewer, Marilynn B., and Brown, Rupert J.. 1998. “Intergroup Relations.” In The Handbook of Social Psychology, eds. Gilbert, D. T., Fiske, Susan T., and Lindzey, G.. Chapter 29: 554–589. New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Brown, Nadia. 2014. Sisters in the Statehouse: Black Women and Legislative Decision Making. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, Nadia, and Lemi, Danielle Casarez. 2021. Sister Style: The Politics of Appearance for Black Women Political Elites. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bryant, Lisa A., and Hellwege, Julia Marin. 2018. “Working Mothers Represent: How Children Affect the Legislative Agenda of Women in Congress.” American Politics Research 47 (3): 447–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burge, Camille D., Hodges, Melissa J., and Rinaldi, Rio. 2020. “Family Matters? Exploring Media Coverage of Presidential Candidates’ Families by Gender and Race, Politics, Groups, and Identities.” Politics, Groups, and Identities 8 (5): 1022–42. doi: 10.1080/21565503.2019.1584748.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bystrom, Dianne, Kaid, Lynda Lee, and Robertson, Terry A.. 2004. Gender and Candidate Communication. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Caldwell, Paulette M. 1991. “A Hair Piece: Perspectives on the Intersection of Race and Gender.” Duke Law Journal 2: 365–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, Rosie, and Cowley, Phillip. 2018. “The Impact of Parental Status on the Visibility and Evaluations of Politicians.” British Journal of Politics and International Relations 20 (3): 753–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campi, Ashleigh, and Junn, Jane. 2019. “Racial Linked Fate and Gender in U.S. Politics.” Politics, Groups, and Identities (forthcoming). doi: 10.1080/21565503.2019.1638805.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cargile, Ivy A. M. 2023. “Stereotyping Latinas: Candidate Gender and Ethnicity on the Political Stage.” Politics, Groups, and Identities 11 (2): 207–25. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/21565503.2021.1946097.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carroll, Susan J., and Sanbonmatsu, Kira. 2013. More Women Can Run: Gender and Pathways to the State Legislatures. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Center for American Women in Politics, CAWP. 2023. Black Women in American Politics.Google Scholar
Collins, Patricia Hill. 2004. Black Sexual Politics: African Americans, Gender, and the New Racism. New York: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deason, Grace. 2011. “Maternal Appeals in Politics: Their Effectiveness and Consequences.” PhD diss. University of Minnesota.Google Scholar
Deason, Grace, Greenlee, Jill S., and Langer, Carrie A.. 2015. “Mothers on the Campagin Trail: Implications of Politicized Motherhood on Women in Politics.” Politics, Groups, and Identities 3 (1): 133–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deckman, Melissa. 2016. Tea Party Women: Mama Grizzlies, Grassroots Leaders, and the Changing Face of the American Right. New York: New York University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diekman, Amanda B., and Eagly, Alice H.. 2000. “Stereotypes as Dynamic Constructs: Women and Men of the Past, Present, and Future.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 26 (10): 1171–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ditonto, Tessa M. 2017. “A High Bar or a Double Standard? Gender, Competence, and Information in Political Campaigns.” Political Behavior 39 (2): 301–25. doi: 10.1007/s11109-016-9357-5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eagly, Alice H., and Karau, Steve J.. 2002. “Role Congruity Theory of Prejudice toward Female Leaders.” Psychological Review 109 (3): 573–94. doi: 10.1037//0033-295X.109.3.573.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elder, Laurel, and Greene, Steven. 2012. “The Gender Gap and the Politics of Parenthood Throughout the Lifecycle.” In APSA 2012 Annual Meeting Paper.Google Scholar
Falk, Erika. 2010. Women for President: Media Bias in Nine Campaigns. Urbana-Champaign: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Ford Dowe, Pearl K. 2020. “Resisting Marginalization: Black Women’s Political Ambition and Agency.” PS: Political Science & Politics 53 (4): 697–701. doi: 10.1017/S1049096520000554.Google Scholar
Fowler, Erika Franklin, Franz, Michael M., and Ridout, Travis N.. 2014. Political Advertising in 2010. Edited by Wesleyan Media Project. Middletown, CT.Google Scholar
Fowler, Erika Franklin, Franz, Michael M., and Ridout, Travis N.. 2015. Political Advertising in 2012. Edited by Wesleyan Media Project. Middletown, CT.Google Scholar
Fowler, Erika Franklin, Franz, Michael M., and Ridout, Travis N.. 2017. Political Advertising in 2014. Edited by Department of Government at Wesleyan University, Wesleyan Media Project. Middletown, CT.Google Scholar
Fowler, Erika Franklin, Franz, Michael M., Ridout, Travis N., and Baum, Laura M.. 2020. Political Advertising in 2018. Edited by Department of Government at Wesleyan University, Wesleyan Media Project. Middletown, CT.Google Scholar
Fowler, Erika Franklin, Franz, Michael M., Ridout, Travis N., and Baum, Laura M.. 2019. Political Advertising in 2016. Edited by Department of Government at Wesleyan University, Wesleyan Media Project. Middletown, CT.Google Scholar
Gershon, Sarah Allen, and Monforti, Jessica Lavariega. 2021. “Intersecting Campaigns: Candidate Race, Ethnicity, Gender and Voter Evaluations.” Politics, Groups, and Identities 9 (3): 439–63. doi: 10.1080/21565503.2019.1584752.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goff, Phiillip Atiba, Thomas, Margaret A., and Jackson, Matthew Christian. 2008. “‘Ain’t I a Woman?’: Towards an Intersectional Approach to Person Perception and Group-Based Harms.” Sex Roles 59 (5): 392–403.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Golebiowska, Ewa A. 2001. “Group Stereotypes and Political Evaluation.” American Politics Research 29 (6): 535–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greene, Stacey, Matos, Yalidy, and Sanbonmatsu, Kira. 2021. “The Politics of ‘Women of Color’: A Group Identity Worth Investigating.” Politics, Groups, and Identities (forthcoming): 1–22.Google Scholar
Greenlee, Jill S. 2014. The Political Consequences of Motherhood. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hancock, Ange-Marie. 2004. The Politics of Disgust: The Public Identity of the Welfare Queen. New York: NYU Press.Google Scholar
Harris-Perry, Melissa. 2013. Sister Citizen: Shame, Stereotypes, and Black Women in America. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Hill Collins, Patricia A. 2002. Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment. New York: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holder, Aisha, Jackson, Margo A., and Poterotto, Joseph G.. 2015. “Racial Microaggression Experiences and Coping Strategies of Black Women in Corporate Leadership.” Qualitative Psychology 2 (2): 164–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hooks, Bell. 1981. Ain’t I a Woman: Black Women and Feminism. Boston: South End Press.Google Scholar
Kang, Taewoo, Fowler, Erika Franklin, Franz, Michael M., and Ridout, Travis N.. 2018. “Issue Consistency? Comparing Television Advertising, Tweets, and E-mail in the 2014 Senate Campaigns.” Political Communication 35 (1): 32–49. doi: 10.1080/10584609.2017.1334729.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kenny, John, Larner, Jac, and Lewis-Beck, Michael. 2021. “Candidate Authenticity and the Iowa Caucus.” Electoral Studies 73: 102390.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koenig, Anne M., Eagly, Alice H., Mitchell, Abigail A., and Ristikari, Tiina. 2011. “Are Leader Stereotypes Masculine? A Meta-Analysis of Three Research Paradigms.” Psychological Bulletin 137 (4): 616–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krupnikov, Yanna, Piston, Spencer, and Bauer, Nichole M.. 2016. “Saving Face: Identifying Voter Responses to Black and Female Candidates.” Political Psychology 37 (2): 253–73. doi: 10.1111/pops.12261.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McDermott, Monika L. 1998. “Race and Gender Cues in Low-Information Elections.” Political Research Quarterly 51 (4): 895–918.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McDermott, Rose. 2002. “Experimental Methods in Political Science.” Annual Review of Political Science 5: 31–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morton, Rebecca B., and Williams, Kenneth C.. 2010. Experimental Political Science and the Study of Causality: From Nature to the Lab. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O’Connor, Cliodhna, and Joffe, Helene. 2020. “Intercoder Reliability in Qualitative Research: Debates and Practical Guidelines.” International Journal of Qualitative Methods 19: 1–13. doi: 10.1177/1609406919899220.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O’Reilly, Andrea. 2004. “Mothering against Motherhood and the Possibility of Empowered Maternity for Mothers and Their Children.” In From Motherhood to Mothering: The Legacy of Adrienne Rich’s of Woman Born, ed. O’Reilly, Andrea, 159–74. New York: SUNY Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Philpot, Tasha S., and Walton, Hanes Jr. 2007. “One of Our Own: Black Female Candidates and the Voters Who Support Them.” American Journal of Political Science 51 (1): 49–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reynolds-Dobbs, Wendy, Thomas, Kecia M., and Harrison, Matthew S.. 2008. “From Mammy to Superwoman: Images That Hinder Black Women’s Career Representation.” Journal of Career Development 35 (2): 129–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rich, Adrienne. 1976. Of Woman Born: Motherhood as Experience and Institution. New York: WW Norton & Company.Google Scholar
Roberts, Dorothy E. 1994. “The Value of Black Mothers’ Work.” Connecticut Law Review (26): 871–78.Google Scholar
Rosenthal, Lisa, and Lobel, Marci. 2016. “Stereotypes of Black American Women Related to Sexuality and Motherhood.” Psychology of Women Quarterly 40 (3): 414–27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sanbonmatsu, Kira. 2002. “Gender Stereotypes and Vote Choice.” American Journal of Political Science 46 (1): 20–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Santia, Martina, and Bauer, Nichole M.. 2023. “The Intersection of Candidate Gender and Ethnicity: How Voters Respond to Campaign Messages from Latinas.” International Journal of Press/Politics 28 (4): 975–94. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/19401612211072697CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schneider, Monica C., and Bos, Angela L.. 2011. “An Exploration of the Content of Stereotypes about Black Politicians.” Political Psychology 32 (2): 205–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schneider, Monica C., Bos, Angela L., and DiFillippo, Madeline. 2021. “Gender Role Violations and Voter Prejudice: The Agentic Penalty Faced by Women Politicians.” Journal of Women, Politics & Policy (forthcoming). doi: 10.1080/1554477X.2021.1981095.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shames, Shauna L. 2015. “American Women of Color and Rational Non-candidacy: When Silent Citizenship Makes Politics Look like Old White Men Shouting.” Citizenship Studies 19 (5): 553–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simien, Evelyn M. 2005. “Race, Gender, and Linked Fate.” Journal of Black Studies 35 (5): 529–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, Aidan. 2022. “Galvanizing Grief: Black Maternal Politics, Respectability, and the Pursuit of Elected Office.” Journal of Women Politics & Policy 43 (3): 347–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smooth, Wendy. 2006. “Intersectionality in Electoral Politics: A Mess Worth Making.” Politics & Gender 2 (3): 400–14.Google Scholar
Stalsburg, Brittany L. 2010. “Voting for Mom: The Political Consequences of Being a Parent for Male and Female Candidates.” Politics & Gender 6 (3): 373–404.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stalsburg, Brittany L., and Kleinberg, Mona S.. 2016. “‘A Mom First and a Candidate Second’: Gender Differences in Candidates’ Self-Presentation of Family.” Journal of Political Marketing 15 (4): 285–310.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stiers, Dieter, Larner, Jac, Kenny, John, Brieitenstein, Sofia, Vallee-Dubois, Florence, and Lewis-Beck, Michael. 2021. “Candidate Authenticity: ‘To Thine Own Self Be True.’” Political Behavior 43: 1181–204. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-019-09589-y.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sweet-Cushman, Jennie. 2022. “Legislative vs. Executive Political Offices: How Gender Stereotypes Can Disadvantage Women in Either Office.” Political Behavior 44: 411–34. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-021-09721-x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tajfel, Henri, Billig, M. G., Bundy, R. P., and Flament, Claude. 1971. “Social Categorization and Intergroup Behaviour.” European Journal of Social Psychology 1 (2): 149–78. doi: 10.1002/ejsp.2420010202.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomas, Melanee, and Lambert, Lisa. 2017. “Private Mom versus Political Dad? Communications of Parental Status in the 41st Canadian Parliament.” In Mothers and Others: The Impact of Family Life on Politics, eds. Thomas, Melanee and Bittner, Amanda, 135–54. Vancouver: UBC Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vinkenburg, Claartje, van Engen, Marloes L., Eagly, Alice H., and Johannesen-Schmidt, Mary C.. 2011. “An Exploration of Stereotypical Beliefs about Leadership Styles: Is Transformational Leadership a Route to Women’s Promotion?” The Leadership Quarterly 22 (1): 10–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wineinger, Catherine N. 2022. Gendering the GOP: Intraparty Politics and Republican Women’s Representation in Congress. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wingfield, Adia Harvey, and Feagin, Joe. 2012. “The Racial Dialectic: President Barack Obama and the White Racial Frame.” Qualitative Sociology 35: 143–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wright, Andrene Z., and McNeely, Natasha Altema. 2023. “‘I’m a Mother First’: How Mayor Keisha Lance Bottoms’ Intersecting Identities Inform Her Criminal Justice Reform Policies.” In Distinct Identities: Minority Women in U.S. Politics, 2nd edition, eds. Brown, Nadia E. and Gershon, Sarah Allen. Chapter 16: 281–298. New York: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Supplementary material: File

Sweet-Cushman and Bauer supplementary material

Sweet-Cushman and Bauer supplementary material
Download Sweet-Cushman and Bauer supplementary material(File)
File 198.4 KB