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Safety of children in commercial aircraft: a review Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2024-03-27 Xiaopeng Shi, Chen Xiong, Yafeng Wang, Yonglong He, Zhenyu Feng, Jiang Xie
Despite children being vulnerable aircraft passengers, children’s safety on aircraft does not attract enough public attention as it does in the automotive industry. Current regulations about Child ...
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Controlling aeroplane crashing through aviation infrastructure using multi-agent technology Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2024-03-27 Sunidhi Thakur, Somesh Kumar Sharma, Raman Parti, Vikram Singh
Aeroplane crashing is a major concern for aviation safety. This article aim is to control aeroplane crashing through aviation infrastructure by using Multi-Agent Technology (MAT). For this 6 variab...
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Experimental & numerical study on hybrid aluminium/GFRP thin-walled column under quasi-static axial loading Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2024-03-05 Citra Asti Rosalia, Ghullam Reza Abramsyah, Annisa Jusuf, Leonardo Gunawan, Ichsan Setya Putra, Tatacipta Dirgantara
This paper discusses a research study to examine the behaviour of a circular thin-walled column subjected to quasi-static axial loading. Pure aluminium and hybrid aluminium/GFRP thin-walled column ...
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Interpretable ensemble-imbalance learning strategy on dealing with imbalanced vehicle-bicycle crash data: A case study of Ningbo, China Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2024-03-05 Jibiao Zhou, Feng Chen, Afaq Khattak, Sheng Dong
The occurrence of collisions between vehicles and bicycles leads to a considerable loss of human lives on a yearly basis, thus presenting a notable issue of concern for authorities responsible for ...
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Design principles of energy absorbing structures subjected to combined shear-compression loading Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2024-03-04 Yong-Ha Hwang, Dae-Young Lee, Jae-Hung Han
To maintain the robustness of crashworthiness performance in energy absorbing structures, high specific energy absorption (SEA) and crush force efficiency (CFE) need to be maintained across a wide ...
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Investigating the crash-box-structure’s ability to absorb energy Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2024-02-19 Ana Pavlovic, Cristiano Fragassa
Protection under external loads often requires the use of energy absorbers. They are designed to absorb impact energy in a controlled way protecting the structures, as well as their possible occupa...
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Verification test of the structural integrity of an external fuel tank for aircraft under slosh and vibration conditions Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2024-02-13 Hyun-gi Kim, Sungchan Kim, Su-hong An, Byung-geon Ha
During operation aircraft, a significant load is applied to the internal components of an external fuel tank due to fuel slosh and engine vibration. Also, in a serious situation, components or pipe...
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Assessment of time allocated to pedestrian crossing: a study in pre-schoolers Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2024-02-09 Silvia Varela-Martínez, J. C. Diz, Desirèe Gómez, C. Ayán
It is assumed that a crossing speed of 1.2 m/s ensures safe pedestrian crossing. However, this walking pace might not be suitable for preschoolers. We sought to identify whether the time allocated ...
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A study on the cyclist lower extremity injury risk by using German in-depth accident data Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2024-02-05 Bingyu Wang, Jun Zou, Xiange Meng, Yong Han, He Wu, Dietmar Otte, Qian Peng
The lower extremities of cyclists are the most vulnerable body parts in vehicle-bicycle traffic accidents. However, few studies have been conducted on the effects of vehicle front-end profile param...
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Crushing characteristics and multi-objective optimisation of a novel bionic frog leg tube Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2024-01-30 Kaibo Yan, Sisi Lu, Yang Shu, Hui Duan, Shaojiang Dong
Recently, the demands for structural impact protection in automobile, train, aerospace and other fields have become increasingly intense, and the bionic energy absorption structures have attracted ...
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Incorporating uncertainty into the validation of automotive crash simulation models for component analysis Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2024-01-18 Reza Barzanooni, Fabian Duddeck
The design and development of crashworthy vehicles depend increasingly on credible crash simulation results. This credibility requires a careful process of verification and validation (V&V). The fo...
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A comparative analysis of factors affecting injury severity in speeding-related crashes on rural and urban roads Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2024-01-16 Peng Zhipeng, Renteng Yuan, Yang Qin, Yonggang Wang, Xin Gu
Speeding related-crashes have caused numerous fatalities and become a worldwide health problem. This study aims at investigating the factors affecting injury severity in speeding-related crashes, c...
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Application of machine learning techniques for driving errors analysis: systematic literature review Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2024-01-07 Mohammed Ameksa, Hajar Mousannif, Hassan Al Moatassime, Zouhair Elamrani Abou Elassad
Driving is a challenging process, any misinterpretation or interaction error during this process can result in an accident, as such, leading to the concept of driving errors (DE), one of the larges...
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Elderly drivers’ behaviour due to indication of pedestrian information by HMI Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2024-01-02 Kodai Kaneko, Shoko Oikawa, Yasuhiro Matsui, Naoyuki Kubota
Japan is becoming a super-aging society, where there are concerns regarding traffic accidents caused by elderly drivers. This study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of a human–machine interfa...
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The coordinated design and optimisation of combined energy-absorbing structure with multi-level thin-walled tapered square tubes Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2023-12-08 Ping Xu, Jiaxing He, Jie Xing, Shuguang Yao, Qi Huang, Xin Zheng
To solve the problem of high peak force and large load fluctuation of combined energy-absorbing structures, a coordinated design strategy based on staggered compensation of load curves was proposed...
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Impact of traffic and road infrastructural design variables on road user safety – a systematic literature review Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2023-12-05 Ankit Choudhary, Rahul Dev Garg, Sukhvir Singh Jain, Abdul Basit Khan
Road transportation is more favoured as it is less expensive and relatively faster than other modes of transportation. A higher probability of getting involved in crashes reveals its negative impac...
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Multi-objective topology optimisation design of surface-based lattice structures for energy absorption capacity Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2023-11-22 Chang Liu, Shu Li
The article proposes a multi-objective optimisation method based on Triply Periodic Minimal Surface (TPMS) lattice structures to meet the requirements of stiffness and energy absorption capacity. A...
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Preliminary evaluation of a passive safety device concept for the protection of riders Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2023-10-27 A. Perticone, D. Barbani, N. Baldanzini
Powered Two-Wheeler riders are over-represented in crash statistics worldwide, and currently available safety solutions have not triggered a decreasing trend. A new device concept, comprised of a w...
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Role of ABS and EPS foams in determining the performance of motorcyclist helmet during impact loading Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2023-10-31 Yogesh Kumar, Sanan H. Khan, Abdel Hamid I. Mourad
This study develops a Finite Element Method (FEM) model to evaluate motorcyclist helmet performance, with a focus on stress distribution in the temporal bone region and its impact on brain protecti...
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Prediction of pedestrian injuries in motorcycle-pedestrian crashes using THUMS FE-HBM Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2023-10-31 Devendra Kumar, Kuldeep Singh, Anoop Chawla, Sudipto Mukherjee
This study focuses on the high fatality rates associated with motorcycles as a mode of transport in India, surpassing trucks and cars. Over the last decade, motorcycle-related fatalities have seen ...
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Research on the cushioning and energy absorption characteristics of gradient sinusoidal negative Poisson’s ratio honeycomb structures Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2023-10-29 Fengde Liu, Yuhua Song, Hui Liu, Baoqing Zhang
In this study, we designed improved cellular materials (CMs) with good energy absorption capacities, proposing new types of CMs with negative Poisson ratios by introducing sinusoidal cell walls and...
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Edgewise compression behaviour of 3D woven honeycomb composites Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2023-10-26 Lekhani Tripathi, Bijoya Kumar Behera
In this study, multiple cell geometries of honeycomb fabrics were woven by varying the cell size, free wall length, bonded wall length, opening angle, and the number of layers while maintaining the...
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Performance design, development and verification of honeycomb aluminium barrier for vehicle side impact Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2023-10-25 Zhu Haitao, Jialin Yang, Bingxu Duan
SUVs are taken as the research object to develop the side deformation barrier with Chinese characteristics. By extracting characteristic parameters of typical SUVs, honeycomb aluminium barrier and ...
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Optimising the tether angle of a head and neck restraint Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2023-10-26 Vincent Phibbs Clarke, Cornelis Uys de Jongh
This study used models of a helmeted human and Hybrid III anthropomorphic test device (HIII ATD) head and neck to analyse the effects of changing the helmet to device tether angle on a head and nec...
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Crashworthiness optimisation design of novel nested structures Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2023-10-24 Yonghui Wang, Qiang He, Xiao Chen
In order to improve the crashworthiness of the novel circular-vein branched nested tube (CVBNT) proposed in recent research work, the crashworthiness design is optimised in this paper. Based on num...
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Ductile failure behaviour characterisation of HRT with GISSMO and crashworthiness optimisation design of VRB-HRT Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2023-10-24 Libin Duan, Xiaotong Yang, Wei Xu, Zhanpeng Du, Xing Liu, Lei Shi, Dongkai Xu
In this paper, a generalised incremental stress state dependent damage model (GISSMO) is used to accurately characterise the ductile failure behaviour of hot formed steel under collision, which is ...
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Driving choices and behaviours of young male drivers at strategic and tactical levels Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2023-10-16 Derya Azık, Türker Özkan
Understanding the common actions of risky drivers could be critical to developing effective countermeasures and improving public health. Pre-trip and on-trip choices might be critical parts behind ...
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Static and dynamic crushing of sandwich tubes with composite skins and three plywood cores (poplar, birch, and oak) Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2023-10-18 Romain Guélou, Florent Eyma, Arthur Cantarel, Samuel Rivallant, Bruno Castanié
This paper presents the results of static and dynamic crushing of sandwich tubes with carbon or glass skins and different wood cores. Wood cores were made with poplar, birch, or oak veneer. The cor...
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Aircraft crashworthiness: modelling of fuel inside a conformable tank Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2023-10-08 Saiaf Bin Rayhan, Xue Pu
With the aid of modern computing systems and commercial finite element (FE) codes, the expensive and non-repeatable experimental crashworthiness testing of complex fuselage sections can be simulate...
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Design and evaluation of compressive properties of 3D-printed PLA stochastic open-cell foam Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2023-10-09 Abdelghani Khennab, Abdennour Benhizia
The deformation characteristics and mechanical behaviour of 3D-printed stochastic open-cell foam structures were experimentally studied under a quasi-static compression test. PLA foam specimens wit...
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An empirical analysis on the effects of alcohol-impairment in injury severities of motorcyclists Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2023-10-02 Mouyid Islam
This research study examined the factors contributing to the injury severity of alcohol-impaired motorcyclists (BAC ≥ 0.08), compared to non-alcohol-impaired motorcyclists (BAC < 0.08). This study ...
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Inclined battery cells for mitigating damage in undercarriage collision Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2023-09-22 Powen Chen, Yong Xia, Qing Zhou
Undercarriage collision is dangerous for electric vehicle as battery pack is usually integrated into the vehicle floor. If battery pack is ploughed by obstacle on road, battery cells could be damag...
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Research on the axial energy-absorbing characteristics of CFRP thin-walled tubes based on material modification Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2023-09-21 Lehui Yang, Qingchun Wang, Fuhuai Jiang
The specific energy absorption of thin-walled hybrid carbon fibre tubes is significantly enhanced by matrix materials. To further improve the energy absorption characteristics of CFRP, in this stud...
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Damage mechanisms and analytical model of CFRP laminate under low-velocity normal and oblique impacts Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2023-09-21 Zhongyu Li, Junyuan Zhang, Bingquan Lu, Xiaozhao Zhao, Jianfeng Wang, Na Yang
The present work investigates the energy absorption performance of carbon fibre-reinforced polymer (CFRP) laminates subjected to low-velocity normal and oblique impacts. Experimental tests are cond...
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Application of Macro Element Method (MEM) for faster automotive crash safety design during concept stage Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2023-09-21 Peddi Sai Rama Narayana, Raghu V. Prakash, Srinivas Gunti, Kanugula Raghu
The non-linear nature of vehicle crash safety simulations using the Finite Element Method (FEM) usually requires a significant investment in computational time and resources, in addition to the req...
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Identification of material parameters for the Vawter-Fung lung tissue constitutive model and assessment in human body model for impact loading Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2023-09-21 Dilaver Singh, Duane S. Cronin
The widely used Vawter-Fung (VF) lung tissue constitutive model, originally developed to model respiration, was assessed for applicability to impact human body models (HBMs). A review of the mechan...
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Investigating road conditions of crash blackspots in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: a random parameters negative binomial model Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2023-09-19 Tefera Bahiru Ambo, Jian Ma, Chuanyun Fu, Eskindir Ayele Atumo
Crash blackspots significantly impact and, to some extent, determines the entire road network’s safety level. Therefore, it is imperative to identify these blackspots and investigate the contributi...
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Evaluating constitutive models of smoothed particle hydrodynamics for bird-strike simulation Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2023-09-19 Yile Zhang, Yadong Zhou
In this paper, the response of different bird constitutive models under high-speed impact was analysed by numerical methods, and the accuracy of the bird models was evaluated based on the experimen...
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Study on the head and neck injury risk impacted by UAV: effect of impact velocity, angle, location, and mass Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2023-09-19 Rui Li, Zhigang Li, Huiqing Lan, Chunyu Bai, Yazhou Guo, Yafeng Wang, Jizhen Wang, Xiaochuan Liu, Zhen Yang
The number of the collision accidents between Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) and people on the ground increase in recent years. It is necessary to clarify human injury characteristics brought by the...
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Study on impact performance and optimisation of the CRH380 high-speed train traction converter cooling unit Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2023-09-14 Jing Tao, Zhewen Chong, Yongsheng Jiang, Tao Li
Abstract The reliability of the traction converter, a core component in the power traction system of the CRH380 EMU equipment, is heavily reliant on the performance of its cooling unit. The service life of the cooling unit is primarily impacted by its material performance. In order to investigate the material performance of the cooling unit, an impact model was established by using the finite element
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Structural design and self-locking performance verification of the snap-fit spatial self-locking energy absorption system under the impact loading Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2023-09-12 Tieping Wei, Wanpeng Liu, Wu Yang, Shoujin Zeng, Xiaolei Yan, Jinquan Guo
Abstract There are increasingly high performance requirements of energy-absorbing systems in aerospace, defense and military, transportation and other fields, especially in the field of emergency protection where the study of self-locking characteristics is of great significance. In this paper, an energy absorption system is designed by snap-fit thin-walled tubes, which can be edited, easy to assemble
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Influence of material strain hardening on energy absorption of axially loaded steel tubular members via first wrinkling mechanism Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2023-09-14 Alireza Nazari, Farid Taheri
Abstract Experimental investigations have revealed that the crushing response of axially loaded tubular metallic members changes significantly depending on the strain-hardening capacity of the material. In this paper, the post-yield response of axially loaded stainless-steel and mild-steel tubes are examined under quasi-static loading from the perspective of deformation-controlled and force-controlled
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Investigating crashworthiness of W-Beam guardrail crash barriers Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2023-09-14 Pratik Tambe, Gaurav Tiwari, Nikhil Andraskar, Udit Jain
Abstract This study presents the evaluation of safety performance of the blocked-out W-Beam guardrail crash barrier system designed as per the ‘Guidelines for traffic safety barriers’ published by Indian Road Congress (IRC:119-2015). A finite element model of the W-Beam guardrail was developed in Hyper-Mesh and the simulation of the crash analysis was performed in LS-Dyna. Results from the simulation
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Lightweight design of automotive front rail based on topology optimisation and collision analysis Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2023-09-14 Xuejing Du, Huixin Liang
Abstract On the premise of meeting the crash performance, in order to reduce the weight of the front rail of the automotive and improve the level of lightweight of the vehicle.Combining with the goal of ‘carbon reduction‘, a method of topology optimisation was used to optimise the lightweight performance of automotive front rail.Topology optimisation takes the front rail of the automobile as the research
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3D simulations and laboratory experiments to evaluate a dynamic airbag valve Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2023-09-08 Naveen Shirur, Christian Birkner, Matthias Bleeck, Andreas Forster, Thomas M. Deserno, Roman Henze
Airbag pressure determines the restraint effect during a vehicle crash. The pressure required to restrain the occupant depends on pre-crash detection, collision parameters and the occupant’s mass a...
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The multi-objective reliability-based design optimisation of buffering characteristics of airbag seat in manned airdrop Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2023-08-29 Xin Liu, Weiwei Guo, Lei Huang, Zhenhua Zhou, Tianrui Li, Lin Hu
Abstract Considering the influence of multi-source uncertainties on buffering characteristics of airbag seat in manned airdrop, a reliability-based design optimisation (RBDO) method based on probability and interval models is proposed for optimising buffering characteristics of airbag seat. Firstly, the numerical model of the airbag seat is established and the validity is tested by the real equipment
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Evaluation of risk injury in pedestrians’ head and chest region during collision with an autonomous bus Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2023-08-28 Md Mobasshir Rashid, Farhad Farzaneh, MohammadReza Seyedi, Sungmoon Jung
Autonomous vehicle (AV) can detect pedestrians with high accuracy by utilising various sensors. Although it is an undesirable condition, traffic crashes can occur if any sensor misfunctions. This p...
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Axial crashworthiness of double-hat beams with various ribs Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2023-08-23 Wenjie Gan, Qiqi Li, Weiwei Liu, Tao Ma, Xin Liu, Cong Mao, Long Huang
Double-hat beam is a thin-walled structure with excellent crashworthiness. The current research on improving the crashworthiness of double-hat beam through the design and arrangement of ribs is not...
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Correction Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2023-08-13
Published in International Journal of Crashworthiness (Vol. 29, No. 2, 2024)
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Investigate the elastoplastic deformation behaviour of a motorcycle frame under different mechanical load configurations Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2023-08-09 Markus Fasching, Alessio Sevarin, Christian Ellersdorfer
This study investigates the elastoplastic deformation behaviour of a motorcycle frame under quasi-static mechanical loading. We present a novel test rig to analyse the mechanical integrity of a mot...
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How does the safety performance of different vehicle types and weights affect the severity of a driver’s injury? Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2023-08-07 Ali Tavakoli Kashani, Marzieh Rakhshani Moghadam, Amirhossein Taheri, Gerd Müller, Dilum Abeyakone Dissanayake
This study explores the impact of vehicle type and weight on occupant protection in fixed-object crashes. The analysis compares these outcomes with rollovers and two-vehicle collisions to further i...
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Low-velocity impact of square conical gradient aluminium foam-filled automobile energy-absorbing boxes Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2023-08-01 Xiwei Wu, Jing Zhang, Jianxun Zhang, Rui He, Qimin Liu
In this paper, the low-velocity impact and lightweight design of the square conical gradient aluminium foam-filled automobile energy-absorbing boxes (EABes) is numerically studied. Firstly, the val...
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Design optimisation and experimental verification of a UAV’s landing gear buffer Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2023-08-01 Jinjin Chen, Caijun Xue
The landing gear is a critical aircraft system that absorbs the kinetic energy of the vertical load and reduces the aircraft’s impact at touchdown. This paper proposes a hybrid optimisation method ...
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Optimization of crashworthiness of CFRP thin-walled beams filled with aluminium honeycomb based on surrogate model Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2023-07-21 Yong Xiao, Hai Long, Sisi Lu, Dong Liang, XiaoDong Wen, Honglin Hu
The CFRP thin-walled beam filled with aluminum honeycomb is a new design form in the crashworthiness design of automobile energy-absorbing component. It not only meets the requirements of strength,...
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Performance analysis and optimization of square tubes with different shapes, sizes, and patterns of holes under axial compression loading Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2023-07-11 Nalla Mohamed Mohamed Ismail
Tubular structures are common in vehicles in the form of crash energy absorbers. Inevitably, these tubes contain holes for assembling fasteners and heating sources. Though the introduction of holes...
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Bus safety during COVID-19: analyzing bus-involved crashes and economic harm Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2023-07-09 A. Latif Patwary
The COVID-19 pandemic has certainly been disrupting human mobility. The impact of COVID-19 on the diverse urban transport modes varies. It has greatly influenced bus ridership and service provision...
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Multi-objective lightweight design of automotive battery pack box for crashworthiness Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2023-07-05 Hui Wang, Zhaohui Wang, Yiwei Fan, Quanjie Gao, Hongxia Wang
To study an efficient lightweight method of electric vehicle power packs, the paper proposes that a hybrid method is combined with the modified Genetic Algorithm (NSGA-II), the contribution analysi...
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A comparative study on dynamic compression response of multi-cell thin-walled structures with filling foams and connecting ribs Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2023-07-05 Zhiqiang Fan, Xiaoli Tan, Jingkun Hu, Yaozhou Li, Peng Xu
In order to comparatively study effect of foam filling and connecting ribs on dynamic response of multi-cell thin-walled structure (MTS), high velocity (30–70 m/s) mass block impact tests were perf...
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Tailoring the impact response of a spaceframe vehicle structure towards optimum crashworthiness Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2023-07-03 Sunday M. Ofochebe, Solomon C. Nwigbo, Samuel O. Enibe, Onyemazuwa A. Azaka, Ikenna J. Akuchi
An approach to develop a spaceframe vehicle structure that shows improved structural crashworthiness in frontal impacts is presented in this paper. A baseline model of the vehicle impact system was...
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Experimental investigation of hybridization effect of Kevlar and Glass fibers on CFRP composite under low velocity impact Int. J. Crashworth. (IF 1.9) Pub Date : 2023-07-03 Kiran Kaware, Mangesh Kotambkar
This paper experimentally investigates the effect of Kevlar and glass fibers on carbon fibers epoxy composite to enhance the impact strength under low velocity impact (LVI). Experiments were conduc...